Full text of "Letters, Literary and Political, on Poland: Comprising Observations on Russia and Other ..."

See other formats

Google

This is a digital copy of a book that was preserved for generations on library shelves before it was carefully scanned by Google as part of a project

to make the world's books discoverable online.

It has survived long enough for the copyright to expire and the book to enter the public domain. A public domain book is one that was never subject

to copyright or whose legal copyright term has expired. Whether a book is in the public domain may vary country to country. Public domain books

are our gateways to the past, representing a wealth of history, culture and knowledge that's often difficult to discover.

Marks, notations and other maiginalia present in the original volume will appear in this file - a reminder of this book's long journey from the

publisher to a library and finally to you.

Usage guidelines

Google is proud to partner with libraries to digitize public domain materials and make them widely accessible. Public domain books belong to the
public and we are merely their custodians. Nevertheless, this work is expensive, so in order to keep providing tliis resource, we liave taken steps to
prevent abuse by commercial parties, including placing technical restrictions on automated querying.
We also ask that you:

+ Make non-commercial use of the files We designed Google Book Search for use by individuals, and we request that you use these files for
personal, non-commercial purposes.

+ Refrain fivm automated querying Do not send automated queries of any sort to Google's system: If you are conducting research on machine
translation, optical character recognition or other areas where access to a large amount of text is helpful, please contact us. We encourage the
use of public domain materials for these purposes and may be able to help.

+ Maintain attributionTht GoogXt "watermark" you see on each file is essential for in forming people about this project and helping them find
additional materials through Google Book Search. Please do not remove it.

+ Keep it legal Whatever your use, remember that you are responsible for ensuring that what you are doing is legal. Do not assume that just
because we believe a book is in the public domain for users in the United States, that the work is also in the public domain for users in other
countries. Whether a book is still in copyright varies from country to country, and we can't offer guidance on whether any specific use of
any specific book is allowed. Please do not assume that a book's appearance in Google Book Search means it can be used in any manner
anywhere in the world. Copyright infringement liabili^ can be quite severe.

About Google Book Search

Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers
discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web

at |http: //books .google .com/I

The author's motive for publishing this
series of Letters was partly to afford use-
ful information respecting the Sclavonian
countries, which are, in general, little
known ; but chiefly to remove some erro-
neous misconceptions which have arisen
ftom partial and imperfect accounts. He
has endeavoured to represent the state of
things as known to him from records and
his own observation ; and in doing so, he
has historically traced the revolutions of
the Sclavonian character,— social — moral
— religious — and literary, as these were
manifested in different climates and ages.
Of that aboriginal nation, more exten-
sive than any known upon the globe, the
author has made the Poles the main ob-
b

ject of his consideration, — a people who,
in the succession of ages, from the dawn
of history to the final dissolution of their
country, have followed a more regular and
undisturbed march of their own, hoth in
their political and inteUectual develope-
ment, — who, during the exertion of their
energies, the tendencies of which were
manifold, have exhibited in their charac-
ter national features of the most marked
and prominent kind, — and " who," as an
eminent writer has recently expressed it,
** were long the only representatives of
their race in the assembly of civilized na^
tions."

The limited extent of this volume makes
it obvious, that the author could only give
an outline of his subject ; but he thinks
he has sufficiently brought into view the
principal points ou which the mind of the
reader may rest, or from which further
and deeper inquiries .might be started.
He has devoted more space to the literary
part, because this province has as yet been
left untouched in foreign writings, and,
as constituting the moral life of a people.

may afford an explanation of many politi-
cal phenomena and tendencies.

The author has written in a foreign
language, — a circumstance, as it may well
be conceived, greatly unfavourable to his
task, and which makes him now throw the
result of his literary attempt entirely on
the liberal allowance of hospitable indul-
gence. In granting this, the benevolent
readers will perform a fair act of return,
— since, in submitting his Letters to the
public, he was not actuated by the ambi-
tion of a literary fame, for which, writing
in a foreign idiom, he could entertain
no hope, but has, in some measure, lost
sight of his own imperfections and of his
own interests, in order only to promote a
true knowledge of liis country, and, if pos-
sible, to suggest some materials for new as-
sociations to those who, in future, may
happen to direct their attention to the
same object.

Ldinbuiu^H]
10/fi Januayy 1823.

CONTENTS.

Page.

LETTER I.

Sclavonic Traditional Poetry— Bohemian Tale— Scla-
vonian Bards— Remnants of Heathy Custon^ —
Songs^ and their Collections— Resources of the Mo-
dem Poetry— General Outline of the Sdavonian Cha-
racter - - - 1

LETTER IL

Sclavonic Popular Poetry — Its Elements and Modifica-
tions— <Ossian— -Sclavonic Poetry illustrated by Ex-
amples — • Mythology and Superstitions — Ancient
Poetry as the resource of the Modem — Music 28

LETTER in.

Modern Literature of the Sdavonian Tribes— Introduc-
tion of Christianity^ and its Influence— General View
of the Literature in Ill3rria^ Moravia^ Bohemia^ Rus-
sia^ and Poland — Obstacles to the Civilization of the
Sclavonian Tribes — Their Tendency to Mutual
Union « • ^ i^ «• 60

X CQNTENTS.

LETTER IV.

Page.
Dr Connor's '^ State of Learning in Poland/' and Re-
marks on it— Oriental Languages^— Jews and Tar-
tars—Study of the Greek, Latin^ French^ English,
and German .... 94

LETTER V.

Primitive Listitutions for Learning in Poland— -Erec-
tion of the University of Cracow— Its Prerogatives-
Colleges of Jesuits — Reform of Educations-Its Ad-
vantages—Present State of the Universities at Cra-
cow, Wilna, Warsaw, and Leopol — Regulations of
Gymnasia and Inferior Schools— -Society of Friends
of Science at Warsaw ... 120

LETTER VI.

Niemcewicz's Historical Songs— The Oldest Monu-
ments of the Polish Language— The Golden Era of
the Polish Literature— Its Authors — Era of its De-
cline— -Retrospect and Art of Printing - - 147

LETTER VIL

Retrospect of the General Reform of Education— Lib-
raries— Dictionaries of the Polish Language— Biblio-
graphies— Mathematical, niykical, and Moral Sden-
cess-Eloquence and Poetry— The Fine Arts— The
Stage - - - - 173

LETTER VIII.

Modem Polish Poetry-^Emihent Modern Poets^ — Dra-
matic Literature and its Writers— Causes of the

CONTENTS. Xi

Page.
Multiplicity of Writers in Poland — The Patronage-
Polish Female Authors-— Conclusion - 199

LETTER IX,

Misconceptions of the Sclavonian Countries and their
Origin — German, French, and English Writings on
Poland — Causes of the Dismemberment — Elective
System— Its Origin and Merits - - 251

LETTER X.

*' Dzieie Panowania Zygmunta IIL Krola Polskiego :
or The History of the Reign of Sigismund IIL King
of Poland, by I. U. Niemcewicz at Warsaw, 1819" —
Statistical Remarks — The Peasantry — The Army-
Revenue of the King — Coronation — Election of Si-
gismund III. — Relations with England — Accusation
against the King — ^Wars — Zolkiewski's Entry with
the Captive Czars into Warsaw — War with Turkey —
Chodkiewicz's Speech to his Army — Conclusion 281

LETTER XL

Guide du Voyageur en Pologne et dans la Republique
de Cracovie — Varsovie — Glucksberg, 1820" — Intro-
duction—Cracow—The Salt Mines of Wieliczka —
The Caverns of Czaiowicp — ^Warsaw— Nieborow-^
Pulawy — Posting — Miscellaneous Remarks — The
Jews - - . , - 323

HINTS

FOR THE

PRONUNCIATION OF POLISH NAMES.

All the vowels are sounded as in French and Italian lan-
guages. In Polish there are properly no diphthongs^ e?ery
vowel being pronounced either separately or conjointly,
more or less audibly.

The consonants are pronounced in the same manner as in
English^ with the following exceptions :

to is sounded like y, Wawbl pronounce FaveL Ponia*

TowsKi pronounce Poniataoski ; Pulawy, Pulavy.
c like tz^ never like k^ as Pag and Cecora^ pronounce

PatZf Tzetzora ; Potocki, PoMzki.
g like the English g in '< big'* and " Gibbon :" e.g» Oginsku
ch like the Greek %, or the Scottish ch in '* Loch ;'* as

Chreptowicz, Lech,
cz like the English tch in ^'pitch/' or ch in <^which :'* Czar-

TOAYSKi and Chodkiewicz^ pronounce Tchartoryski^
. Chodkievitch.
sz like the English sh in *' shape :" Warszawa, Varshava ;

Staszyc, Stashytz,
szcz like shtch : Szczerbiec pronounce Shtcherhieiz.
rz like the French j, as in *' je" and '* jour," with a slightly

audible sound of r ; Rzewuski pronounce Rjevuski;

SzczEBRZESZYN, Sktchebrjeskyti.

These are the principal peculiarities of the Polish pro-
nunciation. There are a few other of a subordinate kind,
but depending on rules too intricate for explanation.

if-clliHXf^ L^-a

■i •-

TEMPil Dl MtSUSTTC MODBSA'tr: ^1

■Nfc"'

***

m^\m \ !SAb: -'S}M'^]i}\i -fl

'(/■/KJY'l'j ._- ^f^fP/

ffen^TPft ^-triTfR 1 r^B=f°rfti^JBjAg=-.^

't^ i i

i'JJJ

Tf^rtf

i4.f-t

td-JJj J J 1 1

TT^fe

-J ^^

Tnz

X-t-^

{ •

tftaHaai

///■//^/rrf/ . .\l,„,//,fv Jtr..yf jV'.O

> .»

^.. .

MMftBii

LETTERS ON POLAND, &c.

LETTER I.

Sclavonic Traditional Poetty — Bohemian Tale-^SclaWfiian
Bards — Remnants of Heathen Cusloms-^^Songs, and their
Collections — Resources of the Modern Poetry — General
Outline of the Sclavonian Character,

Deak Sir,

In the conversation which I lately had the plea-
sure of enjoying with you on literary subjects,
you wished to know if we had any traditional
poetry. I replied in the affirmative ; — ^for we
really have it in abundance. I also stated, that
the same remark applies beyond Poland to all
other Sclavonian coimtries. But nothing was said
of the character and genius of that poetry, but
what might be expressed in these lines of yours— r

Its smiles appear
More mournful far than many a tear.— -
Voice most gentle^ sad^ and slow.
Whose happiest tones still breathe of woe.
As in the ancient Scottish airs>
Even joy the sound of sorrow wears.

LETTERS ON POLAND.

I now seud you a specimen of this poetry,
whicli I have attempted to translate into English.
The original is in the old Bohemo-Sclavonie dia-
lect, and was discovered by Mr Hanke in the year
1817, in the tower of an old church, amidst a con-
fused heap of ancient implements of war. The
manuscript from which it was pubUshed, judging
from its handwriting, must have heen wi-itten
between the years 1290 and 1310, This, at least,
is the conjectiu-e of Dobrowski, one of the first
Bohemian literati. Along with it were found
several other historical ballads of various kinds.
The one wldeh I give you is tlie oldest; it refers,
as you will observe, to the ages anterior to the
conversion of the Sclavonians to Christianity,

The tale is of the heroic kind. The scene of
action seeme to be In Bohemia or Moravia. The
wood mentioned in it may be the famous Silva
Hercynia, stretching through Germany and ter-
minating in Bohemia. The blue mountains may
be a range of the Carpathian, or, perhaps, the
Giants' Mountains, where anciently lived a Scla-
vonian tribe, called, from the size and strength of
their bodies, Obry or Giants. One of the two
holy rivers may be either the Elbe or the Danube;
and the Joes with whom they had to fight were,
perhaps, the Avari or Franks. Ludick, their
leader, may be one of the generals of Charlemagne,
or one of his successors, who, after having over-

SCLAVONIC POETRY.

awed the Saxons, attempted to follow up their
conquests over the contiguous Sclavonian tribes.

The roughness of the translation has some claim
to your indulgence. It might have been easier
to render it free and elegant than tolerably lite-
ral ; but an attempt at elegance woidd have ex-
posed me to the risk of abandoning fidelity, which,
in the translation of documents of such antiquity,
is (rf far more importance than any external po-
lish.

The general tenor of the tale has evidently
much of the Ossianic cast ; and, if Macpherson be
a faithful interpreter of a genuine Ossian, the si-
milarity betwixt ancient Celtic and ancient Scla-
1 vonic poetry will appear remarkably striking, in
' so much that we only want another Macpher-
son to boast of a Sclavonian Ossian. There have
existed among the Sclavonians many bards, who
are recorded " to have received from the gods the
gift of song, and to have been beloved by them," and
who were also held in veneration amongst men,
[ upon whose deeds and feelings they conferred im-
' mortality. Some of their names are preserved by
tradition, and transmitted along with their songs
to after ages. In the snhjoined tale you wiU read
the names of Zaboy and Lumir, in others those
I of Ratibor and Bojan are signalized. Bojan was
I denominated the "nightingale of olden times ;" and
I was held to be the grandchild of Wieles, tutelary

LETTERS ON POLAND.

God of FlocJiS. He sung iu Great Nowgorotl ; aud
a street in that town is, from his name, denomi-
l^ted Bojan's Street. The hero of hia song was
Mscislaw, son of a Duke Wladimir.* Of many
Other bards the poems alone are extant ; while
their own names are sunk into oblivion. Most of
them shai-ed the same fate with that of the rhai>-
sodists anterior to Homer's sera.

But all that, iu general, is known of these bards,
called, in Sclavonic, Piewcy, (singers,) is, that they
were held in great esteem, their persons being sa-
cred and inviolable ; that they performed rehgious
rites ; that, in cases of hostilities, they were the
mediators among their own princes, and were em-

• The names of the ancient Scl^voniaii heroes are always
eignificant ; and, in tlieir etymology, point to certain per-
sonal qualities, either in war or peace. Most of their names
terminate in slaw, from slawa, fame, glory, — the acquisition
of which seems to have been their principal aim. Mieczy-
slaw signifies glorious by the sword — Wladislaw, glorious

by power. — Wszeslaw, all-glorious Przemyalaw, famous

by art or cunning, a sort of Sclavonian Ulysses. Others
contain the syllable mlr, signiiying peace, as Wladimir, the

mighty in peace Casimir, the violator of peace. — Skarbi-

mir, the treasurer of peace. Female names espreas rather
mental than bodily quaJitiea. Luhawa, the lovely. ^ Swia-
toelawa, .famous all over tile world.— Zbignewa, the ap-
peaser of anger. At a more recent period, these ancient
personal appellations were supplanted by Christian names
of no special mennmg ; in Poland, they were adopted from
the Homiah Church, in Russia, Irom the Greek.

SCLAVONIC POETRY.

ployed in embaasies to foreign countries. History
mentions two such Sclavonian minstrels as having
been sentin that capacity from the shores of the Bal-
tic to the Byzantine court. Tliey are related to
have come upon this errand from a peaceful people,
which disliked hostility, and which was peeidiarly
_ fond of music and poetry. Other duties of these
hards were to celebrate the princes and heroes of
their country. They were their companions on
journeys and warlike expeditions, and ocaipied
an honourable place at their tables. The west of
Europe had its Round Table celebrated for its ro-
mantic poetry : the east had also one of its own.
This was at Kiow, at Diike Wladimir's court.
You are in some measure 'acquainted witli its
poetry, by means of the German translation which
I had the pleasure to communicate to ymi.

We find Sclavonian bards occasionally .appearing
in the train of foreign princes, tbeir presence pro-
bably being in request on account of their skill
and amenity in song. Attila, the barbarous king
of the Huns, and the scourge of the world, after
a battle in which he was victorious, ordered two
bards into his presence. They sang to him in a
foreign tongue, the Sclavonic. Praises of heroes,
and feats of war performed in their own native
land, were the subjects of their song. Whilst
hearing their enchanting strains, the other chiefs
melted into tears, nor did the iron heart of Attila

■6 LETTERS ON POLAND.

remain unmoved. With a gloomy cast of sadness
in his look, he is said to have taken his son on his
knee, and passed his callous hand over the tender
cheeks of the infant, the future heir of his power
and hia glory.

These bards do not Beem to have lived in any
fixed abode, but went from tribe to tribe in the cha-
racter of judges, mediators, priests, and instructors.
Wherever they directed tlieir coiu-se, they carried
along with them a sort of musical harp, called
Gusla. Their sonorous strains often rung in the
villages scattered over the extensive plains — ^re-
echoed amid the Carpathian mountains, and along
the banks of the Vistula, tlie Elbe, the AVoIga, and
the Danube. The waters of the last river were,
like those of the Ganges, praised as sacred, for
what reason it is unknown. Toland, if his au-
thority is to be trusted, asserts, in his History of
the Druids, that the Celtic bai-ds borrowed their
harps from their Scythian fellow-minstrels : And
the Scythians, according to historical researches,
may, I think, be identified with the Sclavonians.
No evidence at least has been brought forward to
the contrary.

Time changing the face of things, at length ef-
fected a change in the Sclavonic poetry. The abo-
lition of the democratical, or rather the patriarch-
al government, which once prevailed over all the
Sclavonian countries,. — the troubles which ensued

SCLAVONIC POETHY.

among the numerous petty princes, — the increase
of their autocratic power over the people, — these,
and many otlier circumstances, inOuendng the
state of society, acted injuriously on poetry ; for,
having reduced man and all his interests to a fluc-
tuating condition, and subjected him to the capri-
cious disposal of an arbitrary power, they also op-
pressed the mind, the sentiments, and the imagina-
tion ; and thus, introducing dismay and servility
into human existence, spread universal darkness
and mental incapacity. An interruption, or rather
a dreaiy blank of mental exertions, ensued, which
predominated for many centuries in the literaiy
annals of that extensive nation.

The zeal of the Christian preachers completed
what slavery had begim, and what, with all ita
heaviness, it could not by itself have eftected.
Apostolic eagerness could tolerate no song ex-
cept their Uturgy. The native and free effusions
of the human heai-t they endeavoured to check and
silence as impure and degrading to the lips of a
Christian. But, in spite of the di-eadful anathe-
mas of the church, joy often broke asunder the
fetters of fear, emboldened the neophytes to give
freedom to their bosoms, and thwi human life of-
ten became an ecstasy of song. Hence in those
places in which political and spiritual power has
been least oppressive, the holy rites of ancient
times may even now be seen ; and the heathen

8 LETTERS ON POLAND.

song, either pure and free, or mangled with Christ-
ian ideas, rings amid the peasantry, thrilling
through tlieir bosoms with mysterious power.

These plienoniena chiefly appear on certain stat-
ed occasions, which the former existence of the
f nation seems to have hallowed for its festivals,
f and the destmction of which had not been eftaced
I ^irom memory, in like manner as there exist mo-
pjnents in human life which predominate above all
Lfrthers, and the remembrance of which ia so last-
Ling, that tliey appear, as it were, indissoluble
flfirom life's duration.

Thus, on St Joim's Night, at the summer sol-
[ 'fltice, you will see in all the Sclavouiau countries,
[.Jn some more numerous than others, large ^res
uburning on the fields, or on the banks of rivers.
I ' This custom seems to point to the worship of the
L Bun, common to the eastern nations, and brought
L'fcy the ancient Sclavonians to their present settle-
Ir^Beuts. These bonfires are kindled with what is
[ called a pure and holy fire, elicited by rubbing pieces
V«f diy wood on one another. The youth dance
L«round and leap over its blazing flames. * The

* A similar custom prevailed among the Celts, lu game

r DruidicHl festiviils bonfires were kindled on the cairns and

"Ather adjoining heights. These fires, consecrated by the

ds, were esteemed holy. The iieople used to drive their

ID'XKttle through their smoke, in order to prevent tlte effiects

f iU luckj or witchcraA.

SCLAVONIC POETRY.

village maidens kindle at it their wax-tapere,
which they send, entwined with floating wreathes
of wild flowers, down the current of tlie streams.
From the rapidity or slowness of their progress,
they predict for themselves the speedier or later
fulfihnent of their wishes. On the same occasion,
they are in the liahit of singing old songs — some
of them ao antiquated, that their meaning has
been lost in the progress of ages. But the very
mysteriousness of the words heightens the relish
which they reveal for their anxious bosoms.

Before the sunset of a fine autimm day, you
will see a crowd of both sexes, old and young, ap-
proaching to the White Hall, (the dwelliog of a
landlord,) with solemn song and rural music.
They are the reapers, and come to celebrate with
joy the festival of harvest-home. At the head of
tiiis crowd proceed two virgins, the reigning beau-
ties of the village — their heads crowned with
wreathes of ears of corn — the one of wheat, the
other of rye, both interwoven with a great varie-
ty of flowers. In front of the "White Hall they
offer to their landlord and landlady these symbols
of the wealth of the fruitful soil, and pronounce a
blessing appropriate to the occasion. To this act
succeeds a national circle dance. The landlord
leads the dance with one of the rustic Floras ;
the gitests and peasants follow : and thus, in mirth
and jollity, " true to theii* rural chieftain, heart

LETTERS ON POLAND.

and hand," they drink, sing, and dance away the
whole night — ^the starry blue heavens over their
heads, the green turf under their feet,—

Transferred to c

a crowd that might,
as, gire the world delight.

Some of the more ingenious in this Saturnaliaa
company display their talept in composing extem-
poraneous stanzas, which they immediately sing
to their known melodies ; and it must be acknow-
ledged, that many of theii- mij'thful sbnple lines
are not devoid of beauty, humour, and pungency.
They often affectionately panegyrize their land-
lord, but are mostly taken up with ridiculing their
feUow-peasants ; nor does the monarch himself
always escape their sportive attacks.

Sometimes, in the midnight darJiness, you will
espy the virgins stealing to the hallowed foim-
tains. There you will, perchance, hear the plaiu-
tiye music of an ancient song,

- : • like the eweet south.

That breathes upon a bank of violets,
Stealing and giving odours —

.— chaunted in a low, whispering, tremulous voice,
but yet too loud to be unheard through the elas-
tic air of the dewy night. You wiU perceive the
fair musicians holding converse with the mur-
muring waters, and sighing to them the secret
wishes of their hearts — asking counsel, and then

SCLAVONIC POETRY.

returning consoled — ^believing that thus they have
removed the dark veil of futurity.

Some old customs are established, which the re-
proving look of religion itself was not able to era-
dicate ; and the clergy, however severe at first, were
at length necessitated to yield to their intrusion.and
admit them even to mingle with the ceremonies of
the Christian faith. Of these customs, one sUll con-
tinues, that the wedded pair go to the church and
return from it, accompanied with music and song.
The songs bear an undeniable stamp of remote
antiquity, apostrophizing often the moon and stars,
with frequent repetitions of Jjuda, the Sclavouian
Goddess of Love. The bride wears on her head a
wreath of evergreen toasilok and rata, and in
songs is praised as a queen. The banners, float-
ing in the gale, are carried before her, and, amidst
shouts of joy, she proceeds with her bridegroom
to the white hall, to embrace there the knees of 1
the patriarchal landlord, and to receive from him
blessing and presents.

Upon these and many other occasions the cus-
toms of former ages are revived ; and, by assoda- i
tion with the most important occurrences of life,
they assume a sort of rehgioue character. All
such solemnities are, for the most part, accompa-
nied by suitable ancient songs ; a circimistance
testifying that much traditional poetry must be
circulating among our peasantry. Its spirit re-

LETTERS ON POLAND.

cals to the mind the image of the social and reli-
gions life of the Sclavonians, and is mostly either
amorous or heroic ; ita subject being love or glo-
ry — ^but the love and glory of times that are no
more, and over whose tombs a mourning spirit
strikes his magic string, sometimes bold, some-
times gentle, but generally in a slow and me-
lancholy strain. This ""joy of grief" is common
to all nations, whose deeds, as well as existence,
are of yore, — ^whose glory is a pleasing dream of
the past, — and whose active life we do not see but
upon the dead pages of history.

Several collections of the remains of ancient
minstrelsy are in existence. The principal ones
were compiled by Novikow, a Russian, and Ste-
phanowicz, a Servian. Several years ago, Zo-
rian Chodakowski, a Pole, began to make the
Sclavonian antiquities the sole object of his labo-
rious researches. His collection of ancient songs,
and traditionary lore of every kind, will surpass
any thing that has ever been done in this depart-
ment, both for extent and for critical discernment.
The Russian government assigned him a consi-
derable annual allowance for continuing his tra-
vels through all the Sclavonian countries. Some
months ago he was conducting his important re-
searches among the mountains of Caucasus.

As yet, the richest and finest collections of
songs have been made among the Sclavonian

SCLAVONIC POETRY.

tribes under the Turkish government. Their
easy life, which is rather pastoral than agricul-
tural, under a miid and temperate climate, dis-
poses them for poetical pastimes ; so that in
poetry and music they rise much superior to all
their northern brethren, whose habitations, the
nearer they approach to the frozen regiosB,
may be said to be the more closely wrapt in si-
lence. The southern Sclavonians, having been
kept constantly in a state of political isolation
firom the rest of Europe, were not influenced by
foreign refined literature ; their minds, therefore,
unfolding themselves chiefly in an independent
way, natural to themselves, pour forth treasures
of ideas and feelings of their own. Some pieces
of their poetry (which, flowing from so unalloyed
a source, must, of course, bear an original stamp)
are of exquisite beauty, and were valued, and
thought worthy of being translated by such ac-
complished men as Herder, Goethe, and Bro-
(Izinski. Among their number the " Wife of Assan
Aga" may imdoubtedly be reckoned one of the fin-
est specimens of elegiac traditional poetry. It ia
in the Rlorlaco-Sdavonic dialect, and has been
translated into different Ei\ropean languages. La~
bussa, or tlie Princess's Table, a Bohemian tale, ia
translated into English in the Northern Antiqui-
ties. The Servians excel particularly in celebrat-
ing the deeds of arms. They have numerous waj-

LETTERS ON POLAND.

like eong9 in praise of their ancient princes and
chiefs, down to the famous Czerny George. The
southern Sclavonians are ardently attached to the
popular form of government which they origi-
nally enjoyed, and no efforta made for restoring it
were ever left imsung, or unrecorded by tradi-
tion.

If the many remains of ancient lore hitherto
scattered in songs and oral traditions were collect-
ed, and embodied with accounts of the modern and
ancient customs, and of the characteristical tenden-
cy of the Sclavonians, they would undoubtedly fur-
nish a fii*m foundation for erecting a splendid
structure of modern Sclavonic poetry. It ia true,
that the sources of these materials are not so con-
centrated as in Scotland ; but this disadvantage is
compensated by their variety and their unparal-
leled extension. We know not, indeed, where to
find the limits of their wide range. They extend
&om the river Elbe and the Baltic to the moun-
tains of Caucasus ; and from the Adriatic to the
remotest boundaries of Northern Asia. Over
every past of this immense extent the Sclavonians
are diflused in their countless tribes. What riches
of ideas must pour forth from their intellectual,
sensitive, and imaginative faculties, — ^from their
eivil and religious relations, — and from tlieir dif-
ferent opinions, as they variously rise up in time
imd place ! Incontestably a wealth that is ama^-

SCLAVONIC POETEY.

ing to a systematical observer, and more suited
to the irregular ecstasies of an enthusiast or a
high-minded poet.

To explore and adorn these extensive and rich,
but hitherto little frequented, time-wasted regions
of poetry, there is need of bards endowed with
strong intuitive powers, and with a diversity of
poetical talents. There ^ould be bora Sir Wal-
ter Scotts, to recall from beneath the mountain
tombs, (Kiirhany,*) overgrown with moss and
weeds, the bold spirit of old Sclavonian chivalry ;
— other Biimaes and other Ettriek Shepherds, to
give us a new picture of agi-iciUtural and fairy-
pastoral life, — and those also for whom, as for
Wordsworth, [•'""'^

The meanest flower that blows can give
Thoughts that do often lie too deep for tears.

However little the poetical sources of the Scla-
vonian counti'ies are known, yet some of the most
celebrated foreign poets have already chosen from
them subjects for their muse. Lord Byron, for in-
stance, in having made our Mazeppa the heroof one
of his poems, has not in the least cramped his ima-
gination ; its wildness haa rather been gratified by
ranging over the boundless plains of Ukraine.
^K Campbell, also, did not detract any of the charms

' See Appendix, Note 1.

LETTERS ON POLAND.

from his " Pleasiu-es of Hope," by breathing, in
these pathetic words, a heart-rending sigh,^
Hope, for a seaaon, bade the world farewell.
And Freedom shrieked as Kosciuszko fell.

—A sigh wortliy to be fixed as an epitaph over
the whole nation, which was at that time laid in

I the grave, with all its ancient greatness and glory
1 which, heard by a wanderer of the Via-

■ tula, on the banks of the Thames, or along the
Forth, recalls to his mind all his " home-bred
sympathies," and makes liim shed tears over the
immortal pages, as the generous bard did at the
shrine of injured humanity.

I know that you take delight in considering man
under different aspects, and tracing his moral be-
ing through the histoiy of the manifold exertions
of his mind and social relations ; — I know that
you take for your point of view a commanding
station, from which you may easily mark the mys-
teries of his divine origin and destination ; there-
fore, I hope that this description of the image of
the great Sclavoniau nation, however imperfectly
executed, will not be unpleasing to you. A na-

, tion which has not as yet been made the subject
of much attentive consideration, though so very

I eittensive, and possessed of as many moral as

I physical resources, — whicli contains in itself an
embryo for the fulfilment of its great moral and
tolitical designs ; — a nation which had originally

SCLAVONIC POETRY.

a peculiar language, the Sclavonic, • its peculiar re-
ligion and mythology, the remnants of which out-
lived their general abolition ; — a nation which was
governed by its own laws, brought by its ancestors
into its present settlements, f— from what region it
is doubtful — perhaps from India — perhaps they are
ait abstract from the Zenda-Vesta, the language
of ^tich seems to be of a kindred nature with
the Sclavonic ; — a nation which, in the innumer-
able tribes of which it is composed, under differ-
ent climes and governments, did not, in spite of
foreign oppression and contempt, lose the proto-
type of its primitive character — which followed
for 80 many centuries, and still follows, its own
class of ideas and habits, and is peculiai' in its so-

" See Appentlix, Note 2.

t Of these Laws mention is made in an ancient Bohemian
song, preserved in the Museum at Prague. They are called
''Legislative Tablets," " Laws of' the ever-living Gods," " Lan>it
qflhe Hdy Right," These laws, and several other inexph'-
cable peculiarities in the Sclavonian countries, may be traced
to an Indian, or some other oriental origin. It is, at least,
certain, that the Sclavonic language in akin to tliiat of the
Zendo- Vesta. This Mr Maiewski, in bis Sauacrit Grammar,
proves by comparisons made with the Polish idiom, and by
quoting whole sentences from the Sanscrit, which, with thp
aid of a Uttle reflection, every Pole can easily understand.
The similarity is particularly striking in the denomination
of the numeral terms from one up to a hundred, whieh are
tiearly the same, and are formed upon the same gramjnati-
cal principles.

LETTERS ON POLAND.

cial virtues — whose precepts of morality consist
of paternal sayings, transmitted in ti'adition from
fathers to posterity — whose primitive poetry is
HtiU extant in songs, adorned with the lights and
shades of pastoral and agricultural life — whose
music resembles the uniform plaintive wailings of
orphan children, who, even in their sports, do not
seem to forget that they revel over the tombs of
their venerable sires ; — a nation which, for long
centuries, lived almost exclusively on the plentiful
produce of its fruitful soil, or on its numerous
flocks, considering them as the only honourable
Bources of wealth, and disdaining commerce and
usury as sordid and degrading pursuits; — a na-
tion, poor in worldly stores, but rich in kindness,
and warm in hospitality — whose leading charac-
ter is mildness, submission, and fidelity to its le-
gitimate superiors — cordial love among the re-
motest family relations — high respect to the grey
hairs of their patriarchal aged — a most fervent love
of their country, and undaunted valour in defend-
ing its rights. Of this there are many instances
worthy of remark, as eminent examples in the
history of patriotism. Some, prodigal of life,
gloriously defended their liberties, and inflicted
deadly vengeance upon those who dared to en-
croach upon them. Others, being imable to re-
store freedom to their country, abandoned it for
ever, and, a.s exiles in other parts of the world,
sought hoKpitahty and far off tombs ; or enrolled

SCLAVONIC POETHV.

themselves under foreign banners — fought — bled
— and, giiided by glimpses of a deceitful hope,
adorned their tombs, if not their temples, with
glorious laurels.

Such is the spirit and fundamental character
common to every people of Sclavonian extraction,
both those who, enjoying a government of their
own, have attained to great political power, and
those who, disperKed over various climates, lead a
precarious existence, subjected to foreign Jaws and
domination. This similai'ity of character is ac-
counted for by their common origin and their wide-
spreading consanguinity. Their real nationality
has, indeed, suffered much by the numerous ad-
verse circumstances to which they have been sub-
jected ; but, should it ever be possible to unite ail
their scattered family members into one whole,
concentrated within the circle of their own home,
and gathered roimd their own tutelary hearth,
they would, ere long, reassume their national clia-
racter in all its primitive purity ; and, by its sa-
lutary guidance, rise, in mildness and strength, to
a superior height of moral dignity and power.

Such are a few of the short and desultory con-
siderations relating to the Sclavonians, whicli the
translation here incloaed has suggested. Should
their perusal amuse one of your leisure hours, it
will be a great gratification to me to have so far
contributed to your satisfaction. I remain, &c.

80 LETTEBS ON POLAND.

ZABOY, SLAWOY, AND LUDECK

A 8CLAV0NIAN TALE.

( Translated from the Bohemo- Sclavonic Dialect.)

Amidst a dark wood appears a rock. On the
rock, the valiant Zaboy. He looks around on all
the lauds heueath. Looking, he Bighs and weeps
with dove-like tender tears. Long does he sit
there, and is deeply sad.

Up at ouce he starts, and like a stag springs
down the rock. He runs through the wood,
roaming over its long solitary wild. Then through
. all the country he speeds irom man to man ; from
warrior to warrior. Few words, and secretly, he
speaks to each ; and having bowed in acknow-
ledgment to the gods, he swiftly returns to his
friends.

Thus passed the first day, thus the second. On
the third night, as the moon arose, the warriors
gathered to the dark wood. To greet them, Za-
boy descends into the glen, — the deepest glen of
the thickest forest. He took in bis hand a sweet
sounding lute, and thus sung : —

" Ye warriors of kindred hearts and sparkling
eyes ! I sing to you a sorrow-stirring song : it
comes from my heai-t— from the bottom of my
heart, tlie abode of bitterness.

SCLAVONIC POETBT.

" The father is gone to his fathers. Behind,
in his paternal hall, he left his children and be-
loved wives- Dying, he told hia mind to none,
except to his eldest brother : ' Dear brother !
thou may'st say to all, with a father's voice : To
this spot a stranger will force his way, and over-
run our native land. In foreign tongue he will
command, as he in other parts hath done. He
wiU compel you to work for him — you, yotu* chil-
dren, and your wives, from the rising till the set-
ting sun. And no more than one spouse will you
be suffered to have, all the onward way from the
Bpring of life till the grave. All the hawks of
your woods will they scare away ; and to the gods
of other countries wiU they force you to bow and"*"
sacrifice.' Ah, brethren ! neither shall we then
dare to strike oiu- foreheads before our gods, nor
to reach them food in those places where our fa-
ther was wont to bring them offerings, and where
he raised his prayers. They will cut down our
woods, and break in pieces all our gods."

' Alas, dear Zaboy ! from the heart comes thy
8ong, and goes to the heart — to a heart drown-
ed in bitterness. Like Lumir, minstrel of yore,
who enraptured Wyszogrod, and all the lands
around, so hast thou touched me, and all my
brethren here. All good minstrels are beloved by

I the goda : from them thou hast thy song, to stir
up our courage against the foe."

LETTERS ON POLAND.

Zaboy threw a look on Slawoy's kiudled eyes,
and resumed his song :

" Two sona, whose voices to manly strength
had grown, went often to the wood. There they
practised their skill with the sword, the battle-
axe, and the spear ; there they hid their weapons ;
but when their arms and minda gained strength,
they joyously resumed them to take the field a-
gaiust the foe. Following them were other gal-
lant brethren, and together they confronted the
foe. The battle was like a stormy heaven — but
the bliss of former days returned to their home."

All at once they sprung into the dale toward
Zaboy. Each one pressed him in his sinewy arms.
" Then, from breast to breast they passed their
hands,* and exchanged tlieir convening watch-
words.

And the night drew towards dawn. They left
the dale each in his lonely path. To the thickets
they repaired on all sides of the wood. One day
passed, then another ; and whilst the night dark-
ened on the third, Zaboy proceeds to the woods,
and through the woods behind him follow hosts
of warriors ; each true to his chief ; each with a
heart too stubborn to yield to a foreign king ;
each armed with a sharp weapon.

" Now, Slawoy, dear brother ! onward to yon

* An ancient custom in plighting faitli.

SCLAVONIC POETRY.

Uue mountain's brow : its sxunmit overlooks all
the lands around. Onward, let us bend our steps
from the hills towards the morning sun. There
is a gloomy wood, where our hands may plight
our faith. Go thou thither now with the steps of
a fox ; I shall follow thee behind."

" Ah, Zaboy ! trusty brother ! — Why is it that
our swords must, from the top of the mountain,
commence our dreaiy battles ? Rather from this
spot let us seek our foes, the slaves of kings !"

" Slawoy, dear brother ! Wilt thou crush a vi-
per ? On its head put thy foot ; and there is the
head !"

Dispersed to the right and to the left, the war-
riors plunge through the forest. Here they draw
up at the words of Zaboy, there at the words of
Slawoy, their chiefe ; and move, covered by the
gloom of the trees, onward to the blue heights of
the mountains. After three suns had passed, they
stretched to each other their vigorous hands, and,
with the look of tlie fox, beheld the warriors of
the king.

" Ludeck, range thy warriors for battle. Lu-
deck, thou art slave above all slaves to the kings !
Tell thou thy savage tyrant, that to us his orders
• are as smoke !"

And Ludeck kindled in wrath. Straight, with
one caU, he gathers his warriors. Broad light
shines beneath the heavens. Each way the spears

«4

LETTERS ON POLAND.

kinglj'' power glitter bright in the siiii-beams.
ady they are to go where Ludeck goes, and to
, atrilie where he cominanda.

" Now, Slawoy, dear brother ! Haste thither
with the steps of the for. I shall go and sti'ikc
them in the front."

And Zaboy struck in the front like hail ; and
Slawoy struck in the flank like hail.

" Alas, brother ! these are they who have brok-
en our gods ; who have cut down ovr groves ;
who have scaa-ed away our hawks. The gods will
give us victory."

And a front of numerous hosts, headed by Lu-
deck, ruslies against Zaboy ; and Zaboy, with
I flaming eyes, iTishes against Ludeck : Like oak
, against oak, each is seen above the other trees of
the wood.

Zaboy presses to Ludeck alone. — Ludeck strikes
with a heavy sword, and cuts through the three-
I &)ld fells of his shield. Zaboy strikes with an
, axe. Ludeck swiftly avoids the blow. Against
L a ti'ee struck the force of the axe. The tree falls
[ down on the warriors, and thirty of them go to
- dieir fathers.

Ludeck ill wrath : " Thou baleful seed ! Great

I mouster among serpents ! light me with a sword."

Zaboy grasps the sword, and cuts off a corner

[ from the shield of his foe. Ludeck, too, grasped

his sword ; but the sword slid along the iroiL

SCLAVONIC POETEY.

fihield. Both kindle in fire to wound each other.
Into fragments they hew all their armour, stained
all around them with Wood. With blood were
sprinkled all the warriors, aud all that was in that
gory battle.

The sun passed the noon, and haif-way from
noon to the evening, and still they fought. Nei-
ther here nor there did any one yield ; every where
lasted Slawoy's deadly strife.

" O, thou foe ! a hend is within thee — Where-
fore dost thou drink our blood ?"

Zaboy grasped his axe, and Ludeck sprung
back ; he lifted the axe aud tlirew it at his foe.
The axe flies — to shivers breaks the shield, and
beneath the shield the breast of Ludeck. His
soul shrunk at the heavy blow. The axe chased
the soul from the body, and flew five furlongs
amidst the army. Terror forced a shrieking
scream from the throats of the foe ; joy rung ii-om
the mouths of Zaboy's warriors, and sparkled
bright in their eyes.

" Now, dear brother ! tlie gods have given us
the victory. One band of yours may speed to the
right, one to the left. Let them bring their cour-
sers hither, hither from every dell." The horses
neigh in all the woods. " Zaboy, trusty brother !
thou art a Uon without fear. Cease not from the
bloody work."
\^ And Zaboy threw aside his shield. In one

as LETTERS ON POLAND.

band, he takes an axe, in the other a sword, aad
wielding them from side to side, forward he cuts
his way ainidet tlie enemies. They shake with
fear and quit the field. Terror forced shrieking
screams from the throats of the foe. The horses
neigh through all the woods.

" To horse ! to horse ! On horses pursue the
foe ! Through all the lands let us drive them out.
Let us carry amongst them terror and destruction."

And fierce they sprung on their fiery steeds.
Hard behind they press upon the foeraen. Wound
on wound they deal, — heap slaughter upon slaugh-
ter. The valleys, the hills, the woods, pass by —
to the right and to the left — all fly behind.

Lo ! there the holy river murmurs along.
Wave towers behind wave. The warriors shout
BhriU, and closely press, step by step, on each
other. Together they cross the foaming stream.
Its waves had borne down many a stranger ; but
carried their friends in safety to the other bank.

The cruel kite spreads, far and wide, its long
wings over the lands, and keenly darts on every
bird : Thus the warriors of Zaboy, dispersed in
bands, far and wide, chased the foe over all the
country. Every where they killed, and crushed
them beneath their horses' hoofs. In the night,
under the moon, they hung on their reai- : in the
day, under the sun, they hung on their rear ; and
i^in, in the dark night, and after the night, in

^H heap

SCLAVONIC POETRY.

tlie dawn of the day — they every where hung on
their rear.

Lo ! there again a holy river murmurs along.
Wave towers behind wave. The warriors shout
shrill, and closely press, step by step, on each
other. Together they cross the foaming stream.
Its waves had borne down many a stranger ; but
carried their friends in safety to the other bank.

" Go on ! thither to the grey mountains. There
will end our vengeance ! — O, Zaboy ! dear bro-
ther ! behold the mountains ; already they are not
far distant. Few are our foes, and these implore
our pity. Let ns turn to yonder side, thou hi-
ther, I thither, to overthrow all that is kingly !
The winds blow destruction through all the vil-
lages ; through them all the armies bring desola-
tion" — through all the villages to the right and to
the left. On, warriors, on ! with broad strengtli,
and with shout of joy."

" Dear brother ! lo, there is the broad top of the
mountain. The gods have given us this victory ;
and there many a soul lingers, hovering unsteady
on the trees, a ten-or to the birds and timorous
beasts ; the owls alone fear them not. There,
upon that summit, let us bury the dead, and give
food to the pious. Thither let ns bring rich of-
ferings to the gods, who have again restored us to
freedom. Let us sing to them pleasing words, and
heap up the spoils of the conqiiered foe." i

128

LETTER 11.

ScloDomc Popular Poetnf — lU Yemenis and Mod^catimts
'-''/}8sian'^Sclavomc Poetry iUiutraled 6y Exampies^-^Mym
thology and SuperstiHonS'^AncietU Poetry at the remmrce tf
the Modem-^mJIdusic.

DeabSir,

Seyebal months ago I had the pleasure of
sending you a letter, in which I attempted to lay
down some general remarks on the traditional
Sdavohic poetry ; at the same time I subjoined a
specimen of it in a translation* The specimen
was an ancient tale of warlike theme. I selected
it from a great many of the same description^ as
one particularly calculated to convey to you a
faithful picture of the most ancient poetry, and of
the military spirit of the primitive ages to which
it referred.

I wish not to detain your attention any more
upon these scenes of horror and desolation, pain-
fvl even in fiction, where the human race is more
injured than its wrongs are redressed, and the
sensibility of the heart more hurt than delighted.
I will rather direct your eyes to scenes where

SCLAVONIC POETRY.

29
lovelier

Sclavonic poetry assumeB a mill
character — where it is chaunted in simple and
artless songs, and human feelings respond alter-
nately in a joyful or melancholy strain, as often
as pangs force the heart to burst ita silent hoimde,
or joy raises its calm and serious countenance.

This sort of homely poetry I am inclined to dis-
tinguish rather by the name of popular than tra~
ditional. Traditional poetry is foiiuded on the
recollection of events which had really happened
in a certain place, and at a certain time, and have
been handed down to later ages by oral tradition.
It seems, therefore, to paitake somewhat of a
historical character. Popular poetry, on the con-
trary, being a more generic designation, may, or
may not, imply this idea of historical events. It
consists of the mere effusions of the heart, couch-
ed in song, arid preserves the same popular na-
ture, whether of ancient or modern date. It is
called popular, because it takes its birth, and is
fostered in the bosom of one particular people.
It is generally felt and understood, because its
spirit flows from one common source, namely,
the human lieai-t, and is embodied in a current
and inteUigible language.

Thestaudardfoi-estimatingthepopuiai-ityof any
poetry is, however, very uncertain ; and it is not
moreeasily fixed witli precision than tlie popularity
itself is easy__of attaimnent. It might even he af-

LETTERS ON POLAND.

firmed, that the erecting of a real monument of po-
pular poetry is perhaps attended with more diffi-
culties in exeaition, than the erecting of a na-
tional, — at least, so we may fairly conclude, on
survepng all poetry upon record. Few of those
who undertook the diffictilt task of becoming po-
pular, have been successful ; and, in general, na-
tions can boast of more national than popular
poetry. The cause of this circumstance, as I con-
ceive, is to be found in the subject-matter of the
two. Popular poetry excludes every thing foreign
to its theme, both in matter and manner. It deals
exclusively with universal feelings, expressive of
the moral life of a particular people. Its field is
thus limited, and it cannot overstep the boundaries
of those, as it were, inborn habits, without be-
coming unpopular. National i)oetry, again, is not
_ HO strictly confined to what is peculiar to one sin-
' gle people, but may at pleasure enlarge its range,
and admit subjects of foreign origin, by fa-
shioning them to the ready apprehension of the
Teading public. It only requires a happy choice
and incorporation of the materials, and they do
not in any way prejudice tlie excellence of nation-
al performance, but are even fitted to add eleva-
tion and dignity, by affording it a more extensive
poeticaj command, Milton's Paradise Lost, But-
ler's Hudibras, Wordsworth's Excursion, in each
kpf which a great variety iii extraneous know?
t — = — "y^T"

SCLAVONIC POETRY,

ledge is introduced, are not, on that accdunt, less
excellent monuments of English national poetry.
Agreeably to the general principles now stated,
the most popular of all Scottish poets is undoubt-
edly Bums, and the most national. Sir Walter
Scott. Lord Byron, who embodies in his poems
the most extraneous elements, may, with reason,
be called a universal poet, ivho, having little that
is exclusively Enghsh, except the language, be-
longs to ail countries and nations, and, in virtue
of the quality of his works, is more read and more
relished over aU Europe than any other living
poet.

In turning my attention to the Polish litera-
ture, I may reckon many in the class of national
poete, Krasicki, Niemcewicz, Kropinski, Wenzyk,
Woronicz. But those of the popular class, such
as Bums and Ramsay in Scotland, and Bloom-
iield and Crabbe iu England, are comparatively
few. The whole amount of the popular Polish
poetry might, indeed, be comprised in a few lyri-
cal pieces of Kniaznin, Kai-pinski, and Brodzin-
sld ; not forgetting, however,

Many a. song of olden tune.

Of rude array and air sublime.

Though long on time's dark whirlpool toss'd.

The song is saved, the bard is lost. '

In surveying the general fate of ancient po-
milar poetry, it may with tnitli be asserted, that

LETTERS ON POLAND.

it has survived in Scotland, in Ireland, and in the
Sclavoniau countries. In these lands alone it took
firm hold of the memory of the common people,
and is remembei-ed with delight and enthusiasm.
Among other European nations which could once
■ boast of possessing it, we find it now entirely si-
lenced and forgotten.

But this poetry of the Celtic and that of the
Sclavonian race are in tlieir nature widely differ-
ent, althougli both spring from the same source-—"
the sensibility of the iiiiman heart, which is com-
mon to all mankind. This difference is, I think,
to be accounted for by the diversity of climates,
and by differences in the natural situations of these
re^eetive countries. There is no doubt that Man
stands in closer connection with the whole of na-
ture than be is generally willing to allow, oi- is
himself conscious. To aU that is going on in the
depths of his secret and unrevealed Self, he admits
external objects as friends and associates. At
the important moment, when passions or affec-
tions are aroused in hie bosom, he, almost in-
, stinctively, addresses himself to the nearest objects,
! and makes them participate in his joy or his sor-
I row. In strong and violent emotions he casts
' himself on the bosom of surrounding nature, and
f tinges his own feelings with the hues in which she
\ is clothed. In a state of mind more passive than
active, he receives impressions from without, aii4

SCLAVONIC POETRY.

allows external objects to be reflected iu the mir-
ror of his sotil, where they then become the plas-
tic elements of his fancies and his reveries. Ac-
cording to the existing state of his mind, bis ex-
pressions must vary their degree of strength, both
with the intensity of his emotions, and with the
qualities of surrounding objects.

Thus the deep and solitary glens amid your
native mountains are, I think, the appropriate re-
sorts of corroding grief. The mists and clouds
that hang over the moimtain-hrow, overshadow-
ing the valleys heneaUi, are apt to damp the spirit
of joy, and deaden even its instinctive propensity
to cheerfulness with depression and sadness. The
moimtain torrent, foajuing in downfalls, makes
the heart of the injured and prostrate soul feel,
like it, resistless, and rise in strength and bold-
ness. The same torrent, again stealing smoothly
and silently along through level and enamelled
meadows, might perhaps have composed the
grieved mind to peace and resignation. Like an
eagle from the mountain-top, the mountaineer
rushes on his prey ; whilst the inhabitant of a low
country is of a meek and peaceful disposition —
more disposed to endure than to resent — to sub-
mit than to subdue ; because nature does not ad-
dress herself to him in the language of boldness
and energy, but in that of calm and gentleness,
soothing his passions, and moderating his temper.

LETTEBS OX POLAND.

The moaning winds, at dead of night, filling the
imagination with hosts of spirits, the moon look-
ing pale through her watery halo, as if mourning
over the souls which Ossian represents riding on
the unwieldy masses of the clouds, tlie immensity
of Ocean lifting its blue waves to the storm in
endless perspective, are objects in themselves
grand and subUme, and as such fitted to awaJten
the strongest emotions, lending their own gigantic
featm'ea, elevating the affections of even a milder
nature, and magnifying, as it were, the whole
scale of feehng and expression.

After these brief statements, it is evident that
the elements of popular poetry ought to be sought
either in external natm*e modifying the mind, or
in the mind as reflected from external objects.
Various other causes might also exist to influence
its spirit, such as particular fonns of government,
the prevalence of chivalry, and the events of the
Reformation. But causes of this description are
only incidental, prevailing for a time, and then
disappearing like the fashion of a day. They
may exist in one country and not in another ; ho
chivalry did among the other nations of Europe,
while among the Sclavonians it was imknown.
Tlieir poetry, therefore, was not, in any respect,
influenced by its spirit, though their civil and mi-
litary pohty might, to a certain extent, have been
80 influenced, in consequence of the frequent in-

SCLAVONIC POETRY.

tercoiirse which some Selavonian nations inain-
taiued with the reat of Europe. Nor did the Re-
formation, which was productive of so many
changes in other quarters, effect so great a change
in the public opinion of the Sclavonians, Its influ-
ence reached only to some of their countries, as Bo-
hemia and Poland, and this only for a short period.
The majority of theii' numerous tribes continued
in a pacific and um-eformed state. Accordingly,
. our popular poetry remained unadulterated by
any addition conveyed to it from this channel. It
blossomed freely under the genJai influence of the
country's climate and landscape, as the Celtic once
did while it was the free inspiration of bards and
minstrels, undepressed by any j)olitical revolutions
which are apt to disturb the quiet progress of
thought, and to internipt the flow of feeling and
natural associations.

It is thus from the nature of the surrounding
scenery, that poetry receives, or as it were im-
bibes, certain colours, which constitute its parti-
cular character and national originality. And it
is from no other cause, except this mysterious
blending and union of the human soul with the
external world, that the poems of Ossian have de-
rived notonly their superior beautyand harmonious
effect, but also their chai-acteristic peculiarities, in-
dicating that their origin and their bu'th-place can-
notpossibly be any other known country except Ca-

LETTERS ON POLAND.

ledonia. The peculiar spirit which breathes
through them points distinctly to their native
region, as the only land that could have given
birth to such sort of poetry. Whatever disputes
may arise respecting the authenticity of these
poems, there can never he any as to their native
country. Whatever criticism may pronounce
concerning their antiquity, it cannot deny their
. excellence and beauty. There is a common feel-
ing of what is charming and beautiful that per-
vades sensitive bosoms, which, when awakened,
as it is by reading Ossiatfs Poems, bears stronger
testimony in their favour, than all the doubts of
antiquaries can avail against them. Guided by
this feeling rather than by criticism, foreigners
have leai-ned to estimate all their charms. And
there is no nation in Europe, of any literaiy fame,
that has not several translations of them, rivalling
one another in beauty. The greatest poets, as
Shakespeare, Milton, and Tasso, have not so many
translators as Ossian. The gloomy charms of
his scenery appear to the Continental reader like
a mournful Fairy-land — his pensive mood forms a
new stock of ideas for contemplation, and affords
impulses for feeling — his bold imagination opens a
wild field for the range of fancy. It is owing to
the high opinion conceived of them that Old Al-
byn's Harp, with the Scandinavian Edda, and the
Northern Sagas, gave, as is generally thought, a

SCLAVONIC POETBY.

peculiar turn to the Continental poetry, made it
deviate from its customary classic path by impart-
ing to it a spirit of gloom, and a tendency to sen-
timental reveries, of which the German poetry of
these days in particular, bears tlie strongest cha-
racters.

After this, every foreigner must wonder at the
want of enthusiasm which he finds in Great Britain
for Ossian. The high opinion he entertained of
him he ia unwilling to part with ; is grieved more
at the illusion destroyed than delighted with the
detection of the truth, and still is willing to con-
cur in that apotheosis with which a foreigner has
honoured him, calling Homer the sun ; Oaslan
the moon ; and Shakespeare a star, (or perhaps a
comet;) a triumviral partitionof the heavens some-
what enthusiastically fancied, though, I think, not
imaptly representing the distinctive characters of
these great geniuses. I may here refer to the sen-
timent of an ingenious modem critic on the same
subject, the truth of which, I think, is more for-
cibly and more generally felt on the Continent
than in this Island. " If it were indeed possible,"
says Mr Hazlitt, " to show that this writer (Os-
sian) was nothing, it would only be another blank
made in existence — another void left in the heart
■ — another confirmation of that feeling which made
him so often repeat, ' Roll on, ye dark-brown years,
ye bring no joy on your wing to Ossian." "

LETTEES ON POLAND.

If such, then, be the iuflxience of external na^
ture in modifying the character of poetry in so
many instances, what should really be the fea-
tores distinguishing the Sclavonic poetry ? ^Vhat
[ the prevailing spirit of the poet ? ^Vhat the hue
of his sentiments and language ? And if the in-
I ^ard mind, camelioD-like, takes the colour from
fhe objects which nature has drawn around it, —
what peculiarities are we to look for as character-
izing hia poetry ? He has no ocean rolling in ma-
jesty before his eyes, but he has silent lakes, with a
silvery expanse, either mirrored before him, like the
peaceful ease of his untroubled life, or occasionally
Tuffled %vith passing whirlwinds, like its misfor-
'tunes, which discompose the serenity of his coun-
' tenance, but do not utterly discomfit him. His
tountry is almost without mountains ; — he has,
therefore, no precipitous cliffs — no gloomy glens
— no sheltered covers ; but before him lay boimtl-
less plains moving with the harvest crops, and in-
terchanged with meadows of bahny flowers — ^im-
mense woods darkening the verge of his spacious
horizon — vast majestic rivers — a serene, uncloud-
ed azure sky expanded over his head, and impart-
ing to his soul an infinity of thoughts and feelings.
In these, and such other ways, he may hold con-
verse with Nature and her mysterious workings.
Her elements become the element of his poetry.
Her m ild features give mildness to his thoughts

SCLAVONIC POETRY. 3^

and gentleness to his expressions. His poetry,
therefore, is not, and cannot possibly be, sublime,
it can only be beautiful, like the elements in the
midst of which it ia produced. Strong affections
and passions, aroused violently in his bosom, may,
indeed, raise him at times to a loftier flight, and
impart to it a moral and intellectual energy ; but
still these manifestations are to him hke unusual
excitements, and the real character of his poetry
can only depend upon graces which belong proper-
ly to a lees turbulent and less impassioned soul.

But, instead of running the risk of tiring you
longer with metaphysics, permit me, in illustra-
tion of what I have now stated, to adduce some
fragments, or rather desultory ideas, of this poet-
ry, by way of example. I give them in an abridg-
ed form, just as they occur to my recollection ;
and I leave to you to judge in what way the
connection between the mind and external na-
ture had taken place.

A Sclavonian youth, dying on the field of
battle, calls to the wind — makes it his messenger
to his father, his mother, and sister — bids it tell
them, that their son and brother is asleep " be-
neath the green tm-f," and shall return no more.
He then takes an affectionate farewell of liis steed,
and expresses greatconcemabout " %vho wUl hence-
forth reach him his food when hungry, and water
when thii-sty I"

LETTERS ON I'OLAND.

A Bosnian chief has gone ahroad to war. His
lady aits solitary in her cliamber, and longs for
^dings. But who brings her tidings ? The
I J9fiuioou8 " black ravens" which hover at her
jwindow, and which she fears to address — and,
when addressed, they answer her, that they came
from tlie field of battle — had picked out the eyes
' pf her beloved husband, and feasted on the corpses
of his slain army.

A Sclavonian maiden, hke another Dijanira,
asks the rising sun to tell her news of her lover.

A lover approaching to his love is " a pale
moon gliding on to a bright star"
. A young woijian unfortunately married — far
Sroxa her friends and home — sorrowful and de-
JBpoudiug — saunters in a lonely wood — approaches
one tree after another — leans towards one, embraces
another — she calls them by the tender names of
father, mother, brother. At last, finding no re-
lief, she bitterly exclaims, " Alas ! these are no
father, no mother, no brother !"

Now, from all this, it appears to be a fixed and
constant principle, that joy and grief are only com-
municative when moderate in degree ; but as soon
as they reach a high pitch of intensity they do not
then stoop for the sympathy of human bosoms ;
but shelter themselves amidst the silent solitudes
of inanimate nature, there to ruminate undisturbed
on the fevered feelings of the mind. 1 allow my-

SCLAVONIC POETRY.

eelf now to introduce this remark, as this lonely
and solitary spirit pervades ail the Sclavonic po-
pular poetry, and particularly when grief becomes
its subject. Innumerable instances might be ad-
duced, when strong emotions and passions over-
power the soul. In such moments, affections seem
to walii along, either in moral dignity or in moral
turpitude, through the sohtudes of nature, trans-
forming, in their progress, the reiil aspects of ob-
jects. Is there a rivulet, they call it a river — does
a breeze arise, they call it a storm — is there a re-
tired shelter, they call it a wild desert. Great
themselves, and aggrandizing every tiling, they
stride along, clad either in joy or in sorrow.
Each step they take is gigantic ; and wherever
they turn, are, like the .^chyUan Prometheus,
followed by Power and Slre?igt/i.

Besides these few specimens of Sclavonic poeti-
cal ideas, quoted in the form of short abstracts,
but which, perhaps, have not sufficiently striking
features to render them totally distinct from all
other poetry, I shall now give you some instances
which I have hterally translated, and which bear
strong marks of their Sclavonic origin.

Of an affectionate wife, moui'uing the absence

of her husband, it is said : " Her tears fall like

dew upon the flowers^ (her cheeks :) Her bright

sun (husband) will rise and dry up the dew."

The following of a shepherd is in the highest

LETTERS ON POLAND.

degree picturesque. It will remind you of the
scene of Romeo and Juliet ; and might, at any
rate, not be unworthy of Shakespeare. " Lean
thee, my love, on my arm. I will gaze on thy
bosom till the dawn will awake thee,"

The following bears the character of an old
adage : " The strong wall of a palace is the
people, its golden top is the monarch,"

But the descriptions of warlike events are, above
all, picturesque and forcible. They partake even
•omewhat of the oriental style. A Sclavonian
chief, after victory, is celebrated in these words :
*• Upon that day there were two suns. One in
Heaven, wliich rolled on; one on earth, which
Stood still — and long years shone over all the
I tend."

Of the same warrior the bard goes on to say :
" His xmderstanding was like a palace. With
his understanding he entangled bis enemies like
little birds in a net."

In the following passage you will see a bold
portraiture of the Sclavonian landscape : " But
now misfortunes arose, and a flock of black ravens
(enemies) rushed on. Winds shot their arrowy
blasts on Russia's holy land. The waters of the
rivers turned muddy : a pillar of dust swept over
the fields. The banners flapped high on the gale.
He (the chief) arose in all his strength : summon-
ed the courage of his heart. He burned with the

lie I

SCI.ATONIC MYTHOLOGY. 43

thirst of battle, ' To horse, my fellow eoldiera !
to horse, ye gallant heroes ! Let us ride to the
feast, where we shall diiiik the wine of blood — ■
ye, who were swaddled amid the din of clarions,
and cradled in helmets.'. — ' We will follow thee,'
they cried, ■ thou bright sun of our countiy.
With our oars we will dash aside the waves of
the Wolga, and drain up the Don with our hel-
mets.' "

The last passage which I shall quote contains
such a bold and original description as is rarely
to be met with : " The chief rushed onward
against the foe like a dark cloud that rolls to-
wards the sea. Like a wolf he ran through the
open fields — like a fox through the dark woods —
like a falcon he darted across the rapid streams.
In the foaming vapoui" of his war-horse the sun
and the moon stood eclipsed. No beam of the
bright world was to be seen,"

But besides the influence of outward objects,
there are other elements which enter into the es-
sence of all popular poetry, and hear a share in
determining its peailiar character. Such ele-
ments, I think, ai'e to he found in the moral con-
stitution of every people, and may also be disco-
vered amid our Sclavonian ancestors, who, during
the course of successive centuries, struggling from
darkness to Ught, were subjected to the delusions
of various superstitions as if to various moral

LETTERS ON POLAND.

These errors, acting on their minds
with all the force of truth, often aasimied over
them the authority of ruling principles : By re-
gulating their couat-iences and actions, they uiUBt
also have exercised a strong influence on theii-
poetry. Of the changes which Kuch sujierstitions
are fitted to produce every one may be fully con-
vinced from the poetry of Greece and Rome, iu
which they constitute not only the ground-work,
but also the loftiest part of the superstnicttire.
The poetry of these two nations cannot even lie
comprehended unless their mythology j8/mder-
stood. This mutual relation and bond of union
IB 80 strong between them, that, about a century
ago, it gave occasion to the stj-ange questions
among the learned in France, Whether the origin
of poetry be in mythology, or that of mythology
in poetry ? And, as modern poetiy was consider-
ed to be remarkably inferior to the classic, Whe-
ther poetry without mythology can exist at all ?
But tlie last question can now admit of no farther
doubt. It has been solved by various poetical
works which have since been produced, and which
are acknowledged to he excellent, although my-
tiiology has not in the least contributed to their
excellence. Human race, which, during its Infan-

' ty, was for the most part guided by imagination
in poetry, which made its features so bold and gi-

, \gaatic, is now guided by intellect and deep feel-

SCLAVONIC MYTHOLOGY.

ing, which both became the foundation of the mo-
dem poetry, and conatitute its principal charms.
Mythology was at last superseded in the European
literature by allegory, which was a sort of substi-
tute for mythology ; but its reign was of short
duration. Its naked and impalpable abstractions —
boneless and imdefined moral fictions — were un-
able to take hold of the mind, or to awaken the
sympathy of the heart. Scandinavian mythology
was of an equally transient duration. Some Gfer-
man poets attempted to introduce it into their
poetry, but it was only relished as a patriotic
dream. It consisted of an assemblage of micouth
superstitions, which did not secure it a durable
reception in this enlightened age. The Gods of
Walhalla were too rude to be associated with the
refined conceptions of their earthly worshippers.
These idols were soon forgotten, and remain now
a mere novien et umbra.

Now the Sclavonians had also, like other na-
tions of an original stock, their own mythology.
Their minds, philosophizing on the mysteries of
nsture, were necessitated to create beings, to
whom they referred all unknown and secret causes
as to higher sources and superior agents. Their
imagination invested these with various bodily
forms, which often were fantastic and extrava-
gant, but always symbohcal of the abstract proper-
ties by which they were severally distinguished.

LETTERS ON POLAND.

The first and the highest deity to whom the
Sclavonians bowed in adoration and fear, and
whose anger they appeased with victims, waa the
Thunderer Piomn, (Jupiter Tonans.) Two places
appropriated to his worship are recorded in his-
tory. One was near Heiligenbeil in East Prus-
sia, where he had a sacred grove. A constant
fire was kept up where his image stood ; and the
oak imder which it was placed is recorded to have
been ever-green. The other place of his adora-
tion was at Wilna. The hearth where victims
were burnt to him is called Zglisho. It is shown
to the curious in tlie Cathedral under the High
Altar, where some remainder of ashes are still ex-
tant. The God of War and Peace was worship-
X>ed under the shape of a sword. The White God
was the giver of happiness ; the Blfick, the au-
thor of misfortune. Zyivie was Goddess of Life
and of Produce. Morana, Goddess of Death and
of Harvest ; a beautifid moral allegory, uniting
at once the symbolical idea of Ceres and Proser-
pine. Klimha, the Goddess of Prophecy and of
Fortune. Lada, the Goddess of Love, Poswist,
the Gfld of Winds. Pagoda, the Goddess of Fine
Weather. TTiey had also a God of Hospitality,
Badogost, the only one who was worshipped in a
covered temple, called Gonthia. Other deities
were worshipped in dark groves, in open fields, or
TO th e eunmiits of high mountains. Their reli-

SCLAVONIC MYTHOLOGY.

gioiia rites are now entirely forgotten ; and their
names scarcely known by tradition. Lada, the
Goddess of Love, has alone survived in the me-
mory of our peasantry, along with the tender and
unperishing feeling which she was supposed to
kindle in huniau bosoms. On wedding-days her
name is still cbaimted in the ancient love-songs ;
but the original meaning of the word Lada is no
more understood.

Still there exist traces of some mythological fic-
tions, which, until this day, have not discontinued
to exert a strong power over the minds of the lower
classes, and which the most celebrated authors,
even fox'eigners of the first renown, have not de-
spised to employ as the theme and subject whereon
to display their own powers of intellect and ima-
gination. These phantoms of fiction are preserv-
ed in popular songs and tradition. History over-
looked them, as imworthy of its proud pages. Of
such matters songs are the best records. They
embrace the collective image of the spiritual and
moral existence of a nation ; in short, they are, as
Herder has well expressed it, " the soul of the
people." Let rae advert to some of them.

A Sclavonian conjures from the mysterious re-
cesses of his soul such fancied beings as Dola and
Ththa, (Destiny and Sorrow,) who, not imlJke the
Nemeses, come to seat themselves by the side of
an unfortunate — remiiul Mm of bis past mis-

49 LETTERS ON POLAND.

deeds, and torment him in hia sorrow. They are
females ; and, to sharpen his remorse, they never
approach him singly, but commonly three together,
like the iEschylian three-shaped Moiras,and Eryn-
nes, Goddesses of Retribution and Punishment.
A Sclavonian fancies himself still surrounded with
a fairy world of his own, peopled either with in-
' nocent beings, such as his Vilas, a kind of nymphs
inhabiting the mountains, and dispersing the ga-
tiiered clouds, — somewhat resembling the Scottish
I brownies and kelpies, and believed to be of a harm-
> less and cheerful disposition ; or he calls up the
liideous and malignant phantoms known by the
name of fVilkolacs, (vampires,) who are supposed
to be the bodies of the dead risen from their
graves at midnight to haunt the habitations of
the living, and to drain the fountain of hfe, by
sucking out their blood ;* — or he brings before

* Such a phantom is described in a very energetic man-
ner by Lord Byron, in the Giaour. The imprecations of
Moslem upon the Christian conqueror could never have been
more dreadf\iliy pronounced :

" But first, on earth as vampire sent.

Thy corse shall from its tomb be rent ;

Then ghastly haunt thy native place.

And suck the blood of all thy race,

There from thy daughter, sister, wife,

At midnight drain the stream of life;

Yet loathe the banquet which perforce

Uust feed thy Uvid living coTse;

SCLAVONIC MYTHOLOGY. 49

his sickly imagination the Moras, who, by a
strange coincidence, bear the saine name and
meaning with your Night-Mares, and in the same
way are held to molest those who sleep, — a coinci-
dence wbicli seems to imply a common origin.

Nor do the apprehensions of his soiU, tinged
with superstition, stop here. An incapacity to
perceive the connection betwixt causes and effects,
even now leads the people to ascribe all unexpect-
ed events to the power of witchcraft or superna-
tural agency. His villages are therefore inhabited
by witches without number, doing numberless acta
of mischief. By their mysterious spells they are
believed to bring mishap and disease upon him, or
to distribute antidotes for averting calamity. Some
have the power of blighting the cattle with dis-
tempers, and making children sick by the charm-
ing of their evil eye. Others initiate maids in the
secrets of fascinating the youth, and predict to
them their future fortunes. In these and such like
ways, they exert their power of incantation, to de-

Wet with thine own best blood shall di'ip.
Thy joshing tooth and haggard lip )
Then stalking to thy suUen grave.
Go— and with Gouls and Afrits rave.

The same has furnished the idea of a phantaatic drama
called The Vampire, which has been repeatedly acted with
suecesa on the British stage.

LETTERS ON POLAND.

rive advantage by imposing upon the credulous.
They are believed to compose sometimes a secret
conclave with one another on Mount Bald ;
whither they joui-ney through the air on wooden
shovels and broomsticks amidst storm and whirl-
winds. Thiirsday evenings are the most dreaded
for apparitions of spirits.

During the raiddle-ages superstition and credu^
lity possessed so strong a hold of the minds of the
people as to cause them entertain an implacable
aversion to every thing like science, and to all in-
dividuals who were engaged in cultivating it. AU
knowledge, especially in the physical sciences, was
supposed to be the offspring of the Black Art, and
the immediate gift of the Evil Spirit. One pereou
in Poland became particularly obnoxious to the
populace on this point. Till now-a-days he is
recorded in tradition to have made a Contract
ivith the Devil, in like manner as many in
Europe were held to have done. He was a
nobleman : and, as such, in making the compact,
would by no means submit to sign it with his
blood, which was the ordinary way, alleging his
detestation of having any thing in common with
plebeians. Instead of any written document he
would only consent to give his nerhum nobile,
which he considered as security both the most ho-
nourable to him, and the surest to Hell, — and
vphich accordingly was accepted. Having bound

SCLAVONIC MYTHOLOGY. 51

himself by his word of honour to the fiend, he im-
mediately wished to see the Pope ; and the first
service required from Hell was to open for him
the straig'htest and shortest road to Roine,and that,
while he hurried on his journey, the devils should
fell woods before him — build bridges — and level
mountains. The name of this proud and curious
wight was Twardowski — his place of habitation
Wengrow, a small town in Poland, ^vhere an iron-
chest of his and a magic mirror are still preserved.
He studied the physical sdences and alchemy, and
seems to claim a kindred alliance with Goethe's
Dr Faustus, and Lord Byron's Manfred. Thus,
at certain ages, a contagious link of errors ap-
pears to have pervaded all counti'ies, manifesting
itself every where under the respective national
colours.

From thesefew instances, which might be farther
augmented, it is obvious, that such objects might
furnish rich materials as well as machinery for
poetiy, and spare a creative genius the labour of
invention. And since such phantoms, fictions,
and superstitions, have their origin no less pro-
perly in the himian soul than its most natural af-
fections, passions, and desires, so they admit of be-
ing again wedded togetiier ; and of becoming le-
gitimate subjects of new original compositions,
clothed in all the charms and graces of poetry ;
where the human soul miglit maniiVat itself in all

LETTElfS ON POLAND.

the variety of its affections and its Biiiferings —
tile intellect in all the extent of its powers — and
the imagination in all its fantastic brilliancy.

Various specimens of the poetry thus originated
are extant amoti^ their traditional poetry. Their
remnants, though rude and not always attractive,
contain, nevertheless, valuable hints, examples,
and impulses to the national poet. The simple
and artless chaunt of a Servian shepherd may
Bwaken in his breast feelings of innocence, and
harmonize his inapiratiou to the praise of an Ar-

i eadian life and happiness. The loftier and more
t solemn theme of a Morlachian Improvisatoremay
f nilarge his mind, and embolden his imagination

' to break forth into a majestic epic song. The

' tender, cheerfiU, and lovely stanzas of a sprightly
Cracovian youth may teach him, in his pleasing
pastime, to extol the charms of her who is lovely
and dear to his heax't. The simple and mournful
ditties (dumy) sung by the Cossacs in tlie Uk-

' raine, which, like the historical Scottish ballads,
record the glorious exploits, but unhappy desti-
nies, of the ancient leadei-s of their nomade tribes,
may furnish him with materials for drawing a
diversified picture of manners of the patriarchal
life, and of the strong imcoutrolled passions which
are only to be met with in a rude and primeval
I fitate of human society.

' From this rich and instructive field of popular

SCI-AVONIC MUSIC.

poetry I have made some gleanings which I here
inclose. They may, I hope, be not altogether un-
worthy of your notice, if not from their inti-insic
value, at least from their novelty and characteris-
tic peculiarity. I give you one in blank verse,
the other in rhyme, and the third in a faithful
line for line translation. I preferred giving you
the last iu this state, in order to preserve its ori-
ginal tenor and simplicity, which any attempt to
express it in measure and rhyme would probably
have destroyed. The Russian Dirge may be found
inserted in Mr Bowring's Specimens, from which
I take it on account of its remote antiquity. The
repetitions of words and ideas which occiu* in it
are common to aU ancient Sclavonic poetry.

Before concluding, ^gj me remind you of the
Sclavonic music, which is no less original than
the Italian and the Scottish music. Even fo-
reigners" do justice to its magic power, by often
adopting it in accompaniments to songs in their
own language. The same airs and the same
dances which are national favourites on the banks
of the Wolga, the Niemen, and the Vistula, a tra-
veller may occasionally hear played, sung, or
spoken of with admiration in Germany, France,
and Scotland. In what manner they came to be
dispersed over these countries, it would be difficult
to decide, and of no use when decided. Social in-
tercourse i)rociiretl them an introduction, and their

54 LETTERS OS I'OLAKD.

own charms a hospitable reception, j/ Mueie, like
sculpture and painting, haa a most Universal lan-
guage, by means of which it addresses itself intel-

I Ugibly to men of all nations and all countries. It
needs no translation, like poetry and other litera-
ry compositions ; it has an instantaneous, unim-

I jseded, and all-embracing range ; or, to iise your
own words, (if I recollect them rightly,) " Music

. Spreads every where, like the air, and encircJes the

' world with harmony." If it he so, I think our
globe could not have chosen to be girdled witli a

' 'zone more charming. *

A RUSSIAN DIRGE.
A young maid sat upon the streamlet's side.
And thought moat tenrfully on her bitter fate —
Her bitter fate, and on departed time —
Departed time — the glad, exulting time;
And there the lovely maiden robed herself;
She robed herself, with many adornings robed.
And waited anxious for her trusted friend —
Waited for her trusted friend : — a, ruffian he !
He played the ruffian yiith the maid, and fled: —
AIrb ! love's flower of hope is withered !
Well may that lovely flower decay and die !
She calls in vain — she wipes her tears away :
Thee, rapid streamlet I they may fill, and roll
Over thy bosom — make thy bed of tears :
" I had adorned me for that faitliless friend.
That faithless friend is fled: — He has stolen ail—

* See Appendix. The Music.

. FOPULAE POEX&Y. S5

All my poBsessions but my grief/— tliat grief
He left in merey^ if that grief can kilL
Come^ Death ! I veil me in thy shadows dim-
To thee I fly^ as once I flew to him !"

THE NIGHTINGALE.

A SERVIAN SONG.

Sweetly sung the Nightingale

Within the leafy bower.
Waving on the tender boiigh-^

'Twas May, at evening hour.

There three hunters hear her song.
While they through the forest rove ;—

With their bows they aim to kill
The sweet songstress of the grove.

^* Beseech you ! stop and spare me now.
Take me home along with ye—

I shall sing you sweetest songs.
Sitting on the linden-tree."

The hunters took her gently up
From the verdant hazel ^ray.

To their garden brought her home,
There to sing their qiaid her lay.

But the Nightingale was mute.

Sadly sitdng on the tree ;
And the fair maid pitying her^

Fain would set her captive ftee.

Straight the youtlis obeyed her will.
Took the bird with them alcmg :

And the woods re-echo'd soon
With this sweet and tender song ;

JK LETOEES ON POLAND.

'^ Deeply Mglii die lov^ tnu^
Whett divided from Ihii lave :

Tak^ fhMn h«r tuddte frove.

ZBICHON.

A BOHEMIAN TALE.

Yonder a snowy white Dove
From tree to tree if flying;
In the gloom of the ahady wood^
His notes of sorrow wailing.

'^ O my verdantj lovely grove i
Thou Wert once a happy place.
When with my tender mate
I lived a life of bliss !
But Zbichon no pity knew^
He snatciied her from my side :
And now in yon stony cMk,
A captive nts my love t**

A youth also' is wandering
Around iSbe stony castle :
Sleepless day and night-
Day and night lamenting ;
Now leaiiB heon a xmk.
And bitter tears is shedding :
Now leens he on a tree.
And lot woe is wec|nng z
Now apud a lonely g^ove^
In sadness he is sitting.

To the pine idiere he sat
The white Dove came flying*

■■

POPULAR POETRy. 57

'' What ailetib Am, m^Davp ?

Thy look beCd^Giis woe !
Why do thy notes amtke die grove ?

'Re*^choing sad jmd alow !
Hath a vulture from thy aide
Snatched away thy lovely bride ?"

" O stony-hearted Zbichon !

In the stony Caatie :

No pity hadst thou on me I "

Thou hast caugbt hsst on yon tree«-r

Brought her to thy stony Castle —

An easy prey to thy hand.

The mother on her nest —

From the side of her young !"

^^ Thou wouldst fight for thy love-—
For thy true love wouldst %ht ;
If thy strength could withstand
But the might of the spoiler i
Were thy stre n gtfi only equal
To the strength of the Tultore :
Had thy feet but strong talons —
And the talons were sharp ;
The vulture would, in gore.
Lie gasping at thy feet V*

** But thou, gentle yoadi !

Thy breast, it'is ijtianly,—- *

Thou mayst challenge the foe.

And confront him in fight.

To obtain thy redress.

Thou hast courage and strength ; —

An axe and a sword-^

Punish the spdler !"

58 U^TTEBS'OK POLAND.

The yoath^ anoiiy with fspead^
Hurries throi^h the dark grove,-—
The axe on his arm.
The sword at his side-
Forward to the Castle !

Through the thickets he rushes—
* And at the stony Castle
He at midnight arrives :
And at its folding gate
With hasty hand he beats.

" A hunter, who lost his way,
Asketh hospitality !'*

The folding gate was open*d.
But an entrance was denied.

** Where is Zbichon, the ruffian. rude Y

'^ In his chamber he's asleep— i-

fiy his couch a maiden fair,—

Sad and sorrowful she sits—

Her raven tresses loosened.

On her snowy breast are streaming." .

Quick, beneath the ax;e's stroke,
Down feU the Castle gate :

Next, beneath the faulchion's stroke,
Down fell Zbichon*s head.

His menials were scattered.

And fled for their lives.—
The youth till the dawn
Remained with his love—
Till from the eastern sky— i
From behuid the mountains.

FOFULAE POETBY. 59

Came the rosy Dawn>
To the stony Castle
To welcome the youth !

And he gazed on his love^— -
She was free-— his love^
Whom^ but yestaday> he bewailed
Captive in the stony Castle.

** Wherefore is the Dove
In that cage lamenting ?"

'^ She was Zbichon's prey.
Like myself, a captive."

Now she, too, is free,—
Flies from tree to tree.
In the shady grove-—
Is cheerful and free^—
The Dove with the Dpve,
They coo on one tree.

The maid, also, is glad.
She is cheerfril and free.
The youth and his love
Live a life of bliss,—
At the mom, at die eve.
In each other are blest*

LETTER III.

Modem Literature of the Sckwmmm Tribf^'^Iniroducium of
Christiatuty, and its InJhicnei^^Getieral Vietp ^ the IMe"
rature in lUyria, Moravia, Bohemia, Russia, and Poland'^
Obstacles to the CivXzation of the Sclavonian Tribes —
Their Tendency to Mutual Uman.

Dear Sir,
In the two foregoing letters, I have shortly-
traced the character of the traditional and po-
pular poetry of the Sclatvonians ; and, I trust,
the sketch, though slight, wiU be sufficient to give
you at least a general idea of the nature of that
poetry, and the elements of which it is composed.
The Uterary career of every nation has begun with
traditional poetry ; that pp^ry, tiicai^fore, ought
to be considered as the i^iibiyo and presage of the
future literary fame of every people. The few
remarks I have given you on the primitive and
aboriginal literature of the Sclavonians, may be
regarded as an introduction to their modern lite-
rature. I have thought it the more necessary to
premise these observations, as there are even now
existing a great many Sclavonian tribes,*whose K-

\
t

LITERATURE OF THE SCLAVONIC TRIBES. 61

terature has never nsen to aay eDiuienee> except
in their traditions and songs ; and the whole a-
mount of whose modem literature has been con-
fined to translations of the Bible and their Church
Liturgy. Accordingly, they have no reputation
in science ; circumstances had hindered them from
acquiring it. But it would be imjust to deprive
them of the poetical honours to which they are
ftdly entitled by their traditional and popular
poetry.

The tribes now alluded to are the numerous
Sclavonians scattered over Germany, Hungary,
and Turkey. These may he said to have had
only the advantage of protection from the re-
spective governments under which they lived,
but enjoyed no encoiu*agement in literature.
But, notwithstanding this, they have for centu-
ries preserved their aboriginaUty in language,
usages, and character. They resemble the Gaehc
people in the Highlands of Scotland, who have, in
like manner, presei-ved their Celtic language, their
songs, and their superstitions. As I know you
will feel some interest in becoming acquainted
with these Sclavonian tribes, I shall jnention to
you at least the names of some of them.

Almost in the very heart of Germany, and in
the midst of the Germans, in Lusatia and Pome-
rania, live the Vendens and Kassubians. In Aus-
tria are the Carinthians, Craiiniaas, and Camiols.

LETTEllS ON POLAND.

In Hungary, the Slovaks, more mimeroue than the
natives. In T\irkey, the Servians, Bosnians, and
I Morlachians. All these tribes stand low in the
[ scale of civilization, and must continue so, until
I some fortunate circumstance bring them into con-
I tact with the great body of euhghtened Sclavo-
toians. They may then advance, by this approxi-
mation, to a better condition, hoth moral and po-
[ litical.

Tlie nations which form the main body of the
j Sclavonian people, and which, besides a tradi-
I tional, possess also a scientific literature, are the
I ^oles, Russians, Bohemians, and Moravians, par-
I ticularly the two first. Ages have been gradually
[ rearing up the stores of their wisdom and know-
I ledge, and have accumulated or diminished them
according to the fluctuation of political events.
The modern Sclavonic literature begins with
L tiie introduction of Cliristianity. This last event
[ Was gradually accomplished in the course of ahout
► three centuries, namely, betwixt the eighth and
L Ideventh. What the old religion of the Sclavo-
[ ^ans might have been, is but little known. The
I "Apostles of the new faith zealously destroyed all
! traces of it, and in this they were assisted by the
[ hand of time. It seems, however, that at the pe-
I Tiod wlien Christianity was first propagated in
I "these coiuitries, the Heathen creed had no great

L'lfeDld' upon the minds oit the Sclavoniana ; for tlK
^ J ■* ■« « « I lifl

INTRODUCTION OF CHKISTlANITY.

Christian doctrine raet with little resistance in its
progress ; no persecution was raised against its
converts, and no martyrs bled for it. It gradual-
ly gained ground amongst them step by step in a
peaceable manner. Hospitality, which is a pro-
minent virtue of the Sclavonic nations, was the
medium by which the new religion was conveyed
to them. They received occasionally Cliristian
strangers at their firesides, and, listening to their
doctrines, they soon became proselytes. The
Sdavonian princes, again, accepted the new faith
chiefly by intermarriages witti Christian princesses.
Thus, mutual love promoted the religion of love.
No sword carried the tidings of peace among the
Sclavonians ; a mild persuasion united them in
the universal bonds of brotherhood and charity.

The light of Christianity entered the Sclavonian
counti-ies from two directions ; from Rome and from
jQ^stantinople ; and from both nearly at the same
time. This circumstance divided the Sdavonians
into two persuasions : namely, that of the Roman,
and that of the Greek Church, which, though dif-
fering in form, were substantially the same. This
division still subsists amongst them : — the ^Vest-
em Sclavonians adhere to the Roman, the Eastern
to the Greek Church.

In the southern parts of Sclavonia the seeds (rf
Christianity were first sown. The Moravians
were the first of the more extensive Sclavonian

LETTERS ON POLAND.

tribes, amongst whom the new faitli was inti-o-

(iuced ; then succeeded the Bohemians, and, sliort-

ly after, the Poles. The marriage of Miecziskw

with the Moravian Princess Dombrowka, in the

year 964, led to the convei-sion of the prince and

his Polish subjects. In like manner, the marriage

of a Lithuanian Duke Jagello with the Polish

Princess Jadwiga, occasioned the introduction of

Christianity into Lithiiania. Of all European

nations, this country was the latest in its conver-

■ sion, not having received the Christian religion

. till near the end of the fourteenth centuiy. In

I Russia, Christianity was established towards the

' end of the tenth century, under the reign of Wla-

► dimir the Great, Duke of Kiow. It may, how-

r ever, have reached the more northern parts at a

I period somewhat later.

In considering the various effects which Christ-
[ Sanity has produced upon the Sclavonian coun-
I tries, it may be observed, that, in point of fact,
I ihe Roman Church has been more favourable
i -ttlan the Greek to the progress of civilization.
t Wherever it obtained a footing, science, arts, and
I liberal principles, began to flourish. It gave rise
r io a body of laws, on which the happiness of so-
I ciety was firmly consolidated, and weighed the
lights of monarchs and their people in an equita-
) We balaua-. This characteristic spirit of the
1 Church prevailed in Montvia, Bohemia,

INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY.

Silesia, and most of all in Poland. The coim-
triea, again, where the Greek Church was esta-
blished enjoyed no such advantage : the features
of that church were more oriental than those of
the Roman. In its constitution, there was more
of showy pageantry than of any thing substantial
— ^more that spoke to the senses than to the mind.
It had the ritual, but uot the spirit, of the Christ-
ian religion. The custom of preaching, so condu-
cive to the propagating of morality, which is usual
in the Roman Catholic Cliurch, and wliich consti-
tutes the principal part of the Protestant worship,
was, in the Greek Church, entirely unknown.
The whole devotion of its followers consisted, in
private, of the ceremonies of bowing and crossing,
and a strict observance of Lent ; and their worship
in church consisted only of the ringing of bells,
and kneeling to the images of the Saints ; points
of little consequence to morality. The clergy were
ignorant, and knew nothing either of Greek learn-
ing or of the ai'ts, Tiiey did not study the Greek
language as the Roman clei-gy did the Latin, and,
of coui'se, they could not derive from it that im-
provement which the Roman clergy derived from
Latin literature. They lived in seclusion from
the civilized world ; and kept also their people se-
cluded from the treasures of civilization. All that
the nation received from the Greeks was the advan-
tage of the Greek alphabet, which they adopted, as

LETTEES ON POLAND.

other nations adopted the Koman ; but even this
was ratlier a disadvantage, for neither did they
know the alphabetic characters of other nations,
nor did other nations know theirs ; and thus they
were shut out from general communications. The
Rusaians themselves have felt tliie inconvenience,
ynd have even made attempts to adopt the Komau
'letters, which are common to the rest of Europe.
There is one thing, however, in which the Scla-
vonic followers of both churches have been defec-
tive ; and that is, in the liberal arts of painting
Und statuary. Neither among the Roman nor the
43reek proselytes did these arts ever flourish, al-
though it cannot be denied that both persuasions,
,\ty admitting the worsliip of images, might have
been equally favourable to their progress. In the
Tery first ages, subsequent to the introduction of
Christianity, some Grreek artists, as we are inform-
ed in history, propagated painting among the
Russians. The churches in Kiow were adorned
with their works ; but the infant art did not then
take root in this country. Its monuments, how-
ever, still survive in the sacred paintings of
Christ, the Virgin, and St Nicholas, the patron of
KuF^sia ; but they are so coarse and tasteless, that
the term Bohomaay, which signifies " paintings
of the gods," has become a bye-word for the
► worst daubs and scratchings of the art. The
\ ibllowers of the Rouuut Church became acquautt-

INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY.

ed, at a later period, mth the fascinationH of this
art, mostly diiringtheir travels in Italy, where they
had opportunities of seeing the masterpieces of the
Italian, school. Some purchases that had been made
of the sacred paintings which were found there,
and which were afterwards exhibited in the Na-
tional Churches, as representing the objects of
their adoration, contributed to diffuse the first
faint glimmering of a taste for painting. In several
of the old churches in Poland, some valuable
works by native painters are still in existence,
— executed, perhaps, in the fifteenth or sixteenth
century. In that coiuitry there were some Italiaii
masters resident, such as Dolabella and Baciarelli :
Yet the sera of this art has been rather of modem
date.

Neither statuary nor architecture have made
advances amongst the Sclavonians : nor does
there seem the least hope that these arts will
ever make any considerable progress among them.
The Sclavonians, inhabiting for the most part a
level country, have no Carrara marble on which
to exercise their skill, and but few stone quarries
out of which to erect any splendid buUdings. St
Peter's, in Rome, and St Sophia's, on Mount
Athos, were to them objects of admiration. But
the models on which both were constructed could
not be imitated on the same stupendous scale, for
want of the necessary materials.

LETTERS ON POLAND.

From these few observations, it will appear
what advantages Cliristianity brought to the
-Sclavonian countries. Still, however, they did not
operate eveiywhere in equal degree. The fol-
lowers of the Church of Rome have derived their
civilization from two sources — their religion, and
[the liberality of their monarchs. But the con-
verts of the Greek Cliurcli have not reaped the
advantages which usually accnie from religion :
most of their countries still remain in a primi-
tive state of i-udeness ; Russia alone struggles to
.emerge. The little civilization which that coun-
,tiy has even yet attained has not been owing to
;her religion, but entirely to the impulses given to
tJie active energies of the people by the vrisdom
of some of their enlightened Czars, and more par-
ticularly the present Emperor. Under liis reign
Kuesia has made greater advances in science and
arts than she had made since the time of Rurick,
the foimder of the empire. After the progress
which this country has already made towards civi-
lization, her further advancement is well assured,
as it seems to depend solely on the national energy
iwhich the people shall display in future, of which
she gives now the fairest promises.

Thus much may be said in respect to the gene-
ral inlluence of Christianity on the Sclavonians.
Let us now remark how it has influenced each of
the tribes separately — ^what are the literary re-

mains of each — and of what description these re-
mains ai'e. Each people followed its own pecu-
liar path towards civilization.

Illyria, from its vicinity to the Christian Greeks,
if not the first Sclavonian country where the gos-
pel was preached, is at least that which can pro-
duce the oldest dociunent of the Christian faith :
that is, a translation of the Bible made in 865,
by the two Illyrian apostles St Cyrillus and St
Methodius. This countiy, in consequence of its
political dependence, continued afterwards in a
state of intellectual torpor, and can show no other
records of its literature that are worthy of notice.
We may, therefore, pass on, leaving- also the other
Sclavonian tribes, wliich, except their Homilies,
Catechisms, and Prayer Books, possess no sort
of literaiy productions.

Next to Illyi'ia, we find, in the annals of his-
tory, Moravia and Bohemia converted to Christ-
ianity, Both of these had been for some time
in a state of independence ; and diuing this pe-
riod they displayed their energies in hterary pur-
suits. Yet scarcely any of the works which they
have produced outpass the sphere of theology,
chronicles, and books of heraldry. The vicinity
of Germany has deprived them of their political
existence ; and the superiority of the German li-
terature has diverted them from the cultivation
of their oivn — insomuch, that they may be said

LETTERS ON POLAND.

'■ to have now no literature at all. The Moravians
were divested of their nationality earlier thau the

. Bohemians. They became sooner dependent on
the Grermans thau the latter : and, aa they were
inferior also in literary accomplishments, so were
they inferior in strength of character, and, of
course, leas able to resist any foreign powers op-
posed to them.

The Bohemians possessed a greater energy of
national character. In the middle ages Bohemia
held an important rank among the kingdoms of
Europe. It had a celebrated University in Prague,
where several learned men of great distinction
shone in the republic of letters. The Christian
religion itself has found some powerful supporters
among the Bohemians, who strove both to propa-
gate and to reform it. In the tenth century Bo~
hernia gave bu-th to St AdaJbertus, who became
archbishop in Gniesno, and suffered martyrdom at

^the hands of the heathen Prussians, whom he was

zealously attempting to convert. It also gave

birth to Hieronymus of Prague, and to John Huss

I who, a century before Luther, had been struck

. with the abuses of the church, and attempted to
reform them. He fell a victim to the superiority

^ of his intellect

These historical facts, and the works written in

' former ages by learned Bohemians, speak highly in

■ favour both of the University of Prague, and of

LEARNING IN BOHEMIA.

the civilization of the whole country. The mo-
dem Bohemians cannot look back to their ancient
glory with indifference ; they struggle to revive
it, by cherishing their national literature. It can-
not, however, be said, that they cultivate it from
taste, for their ta«te is rather German, but from
what is perhaps more laudable, patriotic aiFection
and enthusiasm. For some time, a periodical
journal, political and literary, has been published
at Vienna, and also one at Prague, the ancient
capital. In the latter city, besides the German,
there is a national stage, which, as 1 have been
informed, is supported not by professional actors,
but by amateurs. Still the Bohemians ai-e, upon
the whole, too much Germanized, that their lite-
rature should ever evince any strong national fea-
tures. Their learned men, in their wi-itings, pre-
fer the German tongue to their own, not except-
ing Dobrowski, the first literary character in Bo-
hemia. The living authors of note, who write
their native langiuge, are Zdzirad Polack, and
Jongman, both poets. The present Bohemian li-
terature consists chiefly of translations from the
German, and imitations of German works, and
only occasionally exhibits the genuine character of
the national Sclavonic.

At present, I would rather direct your attention
to a wider and more attractive field. I am about
to consider the literature of the two principal Scla-

73 LETTEBS OK POLAND.

vonian countries, tliat of Poland, and that of Rus-
sia. Tlxese two nations, which originally occu-
pied an extensive tei-ritory, extended its bounda-
ries by conquest, and were both too powerful in
their political condition not to be favoured by
this very circiunstance in the developement of
a. national literature. They were not, like the
other Sdavonians, liable to be overrun by their
neighbours, but occupied a secure position amidst
the countries that surrounded them. They were,
Bouietimes, indeed, exposed to foreign inroads, and
even overwhelmed, but they could never he utter-
I ly subdued. The oppression which they endm-ed
» was not lasting ; they soon shook off the yoke
I which had been imposed on them. In short, by
I tiie force of a strong national character, they were
\ ipvincible.

It appears from history, that it had been their
I ]Qustom to defy foreign aggressoi*s. Like the Scy-
t tiiians, who had formerly possessed the same
.eouDtries, and were probably their ancestors, they
seem to have maintained this principle in war,
" You may pursue us, but you shall not violate,
with impunity, the tombs of our ancestors." The
annals of all foreign nations which had ever dar-
ed to attack any of these people are written in
characters of blood. The Tartar barbarians, hav-
ing laid waste with fire and sword the Polish
I .,^x>vince8,foimd their graves atLignitz, (in 1241.)

HISTORICAL OBSEEVATION. 73

Tlie Turkish hordes sent by Bajazet (in 1498)
from Asia and Africa, and who threatened to
overrun Christendom, met their fatal day by frost
and famine at the sources of the Dneister. In
1 709, the whole Swedish army under Charles XII.
was desti'oyed in the morasses of Pultawa. In
our times, the whole tract of land from Moscow
to the river Elbe, the remotest boundary of tlie
Sclavonian settlements, and beyond these, has been
fattened with the blood of those who had the
boldness to assail the altars of the domestic gods
of Selavouia ; and the children now play with the
weather-beaten unburied bones of those foreign in-
vaders, a sight shocking to humanity, and a warn-
ing to posterity !

The whole of the Sclavonic race is actuated by
a peculiar spirit common to them all ; and in this
consists their principal strength, which it is diffi-
cult to resist, and impossible to subdue. It is upon
this granite foundation of the national character
that Poland formerly, and Russia since, have in-
creased in strength, and that the latter gathers now
imder her dominion all the kindred tribes. The
same national cliaracter which thus promotes the
poUtical interests of the Sclayonians is also the
gi'oundwork of tlieir literature. In this consist
the strength and the charm of their literature,
and the only pledge and promise of its success.
Russia is yet fai- from possessing a literature

LETTERS ON POLAND.

equal to her political impwtance. The inhabit-
ants of her extensive domains laboured for a long
tiine under very unfavourable circumntances, which
were adverse to the progress of their civilization
and literature. That country was originally di-
vided into nuraeroua small principabties, subject
to so many absolute petty princes, who were more
busied in dispossessing, kiUing, and putting out the
eyes of one another, than iu giving encouragement
and protection to the arts and sciences. After-
wards Russia was overrun by the Tartars ; and,
for two whole centuries, groaned under their iron
sceptre. Such rulers as the Tartar Khans had
nothing to impart to their conquered subjects, ex-
cept the savage Asiatic barbarity which seems to
have been the common inheritance of this ti'ibe.
At last, by the efforts of their warlike Czar, Iwan
Wasilewicz, they were delivered from the Tar-
tars ; but their minds still remained depressed,
and needed time and neace to expand their powers.
Under the reign of the house of Romanow, Russia
emerged from the chaos of internal broils, and be-
gan to present a more settled aspect. Her im-
portance in Em'ope, however, is of recent date.
She has arisen to it very rapidly, in the course of
a single century. To Peter the Great, Catha-
rine II. and Alexander, the Russians have been
indebted for their whole political and literary glo-
ry. Vet, notwithstanding the encouragement

LEARNING IN RUSSIA.

given to learning, civilization does not yet pro^
ceed so rapidly as it woiJd have done in other
countries, under the assistance of the same hene>
Tolent institutions. The extreme thinness of the
population hinders what may be called the Jrot-
tement des idees, which is of ho great avail in
every populous country. It is, however, to be
hoped, that the increasing population of Russia
will now accelerate her civilization.

The ancient Russian literature is barren and
unattractive. It consists chiefly of some remnants
of old charters granted by different princes to
towns, churches, and monasteries. These may
be of some value as materials for a history of
Russia, and the Russians are now sedulously oc-
cupied in collecting them. The oldest and most
valuable remnant of their ancient literature is
Nestor's History of Russia, which has been lately
edited by the learned Schloetzer. Nestor was a
monk in Kiow, and lived not long after the in-
troduction of Christianity. To this may be add-
ed several chronicles, called by the Russians Le-
topisi/, also the Church Liturgy, and translations
from some parts of holy writ. Before Peter the
Great, no sort of learning was cultivated or even
dreamed of. The Greek and Latin language, both
of which have been the sources of so much know-
ledge among other nations, were almost unknown.
Their modern literature began with tlie found-

76 I.ETTEBS ON POLAND.

- ing of academies and universities, and at the
tinte when their school establishments were placed
on a similar footing with those of other European
nations. Some of their present universities may-
vie with the other universities of Europe, in the
celebrity of their learned men. Of late, great pro-
gress has been made in the mathematical and phy-
sical sciences, particularly in medicine.

Their polite literature is of a modern character.
It is, however, rather imitative than original,
the common fate of all literature which has been
long retarded, as the people must then contemplate
foreign models superior to their own, and be guid-
ed by them. No nation in Europe is more com-
pletely in this situation than the Russians ; and,
therefore, no nation possesses so many transla-
tions from foreign languages. Foreign languages
are more studied among them than among any
other people ; it may even be said, that they con-
stitute the principal branch of education in Rus-
sia. The professors in their universities have
been mostly foreigners, German and French. It
is only of late that some of the chairs have been
filled by natives, who commoidy acquire the ne-
cessary accomplishments in foreign countries, in
the course of their travels, towards wliii-h the go-
vernment affords them the reqiusite meaps and
encouragement. The universities of Russia, as
well as those of Poland, are suppUed witli a year-

ON LOMONOSSOW AND DEUZAVIN.

ly fund fbr the purpose of sending abroad Bome of
the ablest students. As yet, every thing is only
in its commencement, but in a sure way to make
mighty advances.

TTie native authors who have done honom- to
die literatni-e of their country are still but few in
number, and have appeared chiefly withiu the
last seventy or eighty years. The most eminent
are Lomonoasow, Derzavin, Bogdanowicz, Ka-
ramzin, and Zukowski.

Lomouossow is called the father of Kussiau
poetry, or the Russian Pindar, and Derzavin, the
Russian Klopstock. The first is, perhaps, with
more propriety, sumamed Pindar, than the last
Klopstock. His ode to God, though sublime and
admirable, Itnown by heart by eveiy person in
Russia, and translated into Tartar, Chinese, and
Japanese, does not yet entitle him to a comparison
with the author of the Messiah, the rival of Mil-
ton, if not his equal. Yet he is indisputably a
poet of uncommon lyric fire, and lofty energy.

Bogdanowicz is called the Anacreon of Russia,
an epithet which does not convey a just idea of
this author's hterary genius. All that is Ana-
creontic in him is his simplicity of style. But his
thoughts and subjects have nothing in common
with the buoyant physical enjoyment of life
which distinguishes Anacx-eon. He has nothing
aensiuil, but is altogether sentimental. His Dv-

LETTERS ON POLAND.

m^nka, (Psyche) which is his principal poem, Ja a
chaste and airy allegory, like the Paradise and
tiie Peri, in Moore's Lalla Rookh. It has not
the oriental gorgeous brillianfy of the English
poem ; but it has all the fascination of Sclavonian
simplicity, enhanced with the poet's uatiiral ten-
derness of feeling. To apiweciate all the charms
of his style, it is necessary to know the sub-
ject to which he has wedded it ; inasmuch as the
expression seems to have originated iu the sub-
ject, and to have derived from thence its pecu-
liar graces. The Duszenka which he desi'ribes is
the diminutive of £)u,sxa, (the Soul,) and signifies
the highest and most airy sublimation of the soul
\ • — a soul without a paragon. It expresses all that
f fs fair, good, lovely, and delightful. It is

" The fairest of saints diat Devotion has sainted,

Divinest of all the divine,
All the pictures of beauty that art ever painted
Can give no idea of tliine," •

• This is taken from Mr Bowring'a translation of Du-
iwnlca.— The Sclavonian language is in diminutires ex-
bemely rich — richer by far than the Italian, or any other-
Each diminutive has its different shades of meaning, more
tu' less moral, more or less tender. Dtuza has three dimi-
nutives — Duszka, Duseeczka, Duszenka. The diminutives
<)f some words are e^iceedingly numerous, as those of the
Polish Jan (John) — Janek, JanecKek, Janusieceek, Jas,
Jssio, Jasinek, Jasincczek. AdjectiveB, too, have tlteir di-
minutivesj which contribute to render the language very
copious.

KA2AS1ZIN AND ZUEOWSKI.

Among theiiving poets, Karamzin end Zukow-
sfci are the most celebrated. They are both ad-
mired by the nation, and distinguished by the
patronage of the Emperor.

Karamzin has for a long time occupied tite
first station among the Russian literati. He has
been, at different times, editor of severid literary
magazines. His genius as a writer is compre-
heneive : he excels in Idyllea, novels, travels,
and fugitive pieces of poetry : Amoi^ the
last ai'e a great many translations from differ-
ent languages. His works are the most popu-
lar in Russia, and his taste is classic. He is
besides historiographer to the emperor ; and has
lately adorned this honourable station by publish-
ing a history of Russia, in several volumes, — a
work exhibiting a profound knowledge of 8cJa»
vonian antiquities, and written with all the
charms of eloquence. It has been already trans-
lated into German, French, and Italian. This
history is the first work of importance in Russian
modern literature ; and it is also the first which,
from its excellence, has attracted the attentjffio <rf
foreigners.

Zukowski is held to be the most ori^nal Rus-
sian poet. His originality, however, is not bo
much national as individual ; being the originality
of his own mind. There ia no resemblance between
bim and any other Russian poet. He is never

my oti
■■WW

L poet.

LETTERS ON POLAND.

' guilty of common-place in thought ; but neitbei*

I has he their simplicity of language. His ideas

ire new and often mystical — the bold creations of

his soul. His language is like the stormy sea

./oUing in foaming waves. Sometimes he is an

I imitator ; but, even in imitation, the subjects are

[ '^kin to the predominating cast of his soul ; and

I lie never has before his eye lesser models than

[ .Ossian, Schiller, or Burger. He has givun an ex-

[ cellent imitation of Burger'fi Leonora. His poetry

I is mostly lyrical and romantic, — without, how-

f £ver, belonging strictly to any class of composi-

I tion. It expresses only the free ardent moods of

Jus own capacious mind.

There are, moreover, other poets who have en-
I Biched the Russian literature, both with original
I -Works and translations, as Dniitriew and Krilow
! Jhe fabulists. Kostrow is the translator of Ho-
I mer and of Ossian. Batuszkow has given a trans-
' lation of TibulluH. Ozerow is the most distin-
guished cb'amatic poet. But, respecting these
^d other writers, 1 woidd refer you, for more
[ satisfactory information, to liowring's excellent
I Specimens of the Russian Poets, where you will
find an enumeration of their works, and a pretty
minute account of their lives. I meant only to
give you a general sketch of their literary charac-
ters.
With these remarks I conclude what I have to

CHARACTER OF THE POLES.

say confelTiing the infant literature of tliis great
Sclavonian nation. It excites more curiosity than
it affords matter for philosophical speculation.
Let us now proceed to Poland.

Poland has ever been regarded as the most en-
lightened of all Sclavonian countries. The go-
vernment of the Poles, which at first was a mild
monarchy, and afterwards a republic, free even
to excess, had been advantageous to the exertion
of thought. Accordingly the Poles proceeded ra-
pidly towards civilization. At a very early pe-
riod they already had a rich and extensive htera-
ture. Nor was it confined to their own coimtiy,
but extended beyond it. The conscious supremacy
of their freedom and their civilization produced
in them the same self-conceit which distinguished
the ancient Greeks and Romans. They looked
Upon the neighbouring nations as barbarians,
gross in mind and slavish in character ; and en-
tertained the liighest estimation of themselves : — a
circumstance which made other nations call them
the " Proud Poles," — as, of late, their courage
has drawn from the French the appellation of
" Brave Natmi"- — " Braves Polonais." The
same epithet was bestowed on them by Napoleon
in exile. * Trained up in this national pride from
their infancy, they never afterward forgot the

• O'Meara'a NqMletm in Exile, Vol. 1. p. 190.

I.ETTEBS ON POLAND.

B'gj^rogatives and political condition of theii- an-
f cestors. Even in their humiliation, they have not
Ipst the features of their former trliai-acter, or, what
I Milton calls, the " human Jiice dhine." It is the
I dignity of human nature, foHtered by hberty and
TlQsdom, that has advanced Great Britain to her
t superiority, botli political and literary, over all
I other nations of the earth ; and the same dignity
ijnee made Poland the cradle of learning, and the
, i}urse of heroes and statesmen, — made her surpass
I all the other Sclavonians in literary acquirements
I as well as martial prowess, and maintain a long
\ political ascendancy and often dominion over
I them. The same cause has, at a later period,
I ^ade the Poles distinguish themselves by the
I ^ost enthusiastic sacrifices for the restoration of
I (^eir coimtry ; which shows that the strength of
I their ancient character had outlived all the vicis-
[■fiitudes of fortune.

Every nation that has grown up to the fulness
[ of pohtical and moral freedom, must necessarily
L Resent a great and interesting object of contem-
pplation. Such nations dignify the human race.
[Among them the motives are noble and pure, for
they spring up freely from the very nature of the
soul. Their thoughts are undisguised ; their ac-
tions imeonstrained ; tlieu* inborn nature revealed
in all its nobility. Their deeds are therefore re-
corded, and they are worth the recording. Tliere

OUTLINE OF LEARNING.

ia scarcely a nation in Europe which can boast of
so many historians as Poland. To enumerate
them here would be tedious were it possible, such
has been their number since the time of Martinus
Polouus and Kadlubko, the oldest PoUsh chroni-
clers, down to that of Bandkie, Niemcewicz, and
Lelewel, the latest and now living historiana of
Poland, Events of every description have been
• nowhere so sedulously recorded as in Poland :
ages have handed them down to ages. Ahnost ia
every noble family, it was customary to commit
to writing all domestic and political incidents,
and consign them as a legacy and an object of
pride to futiu-e generations. Accordingly, we
find the histories of Poland written in various
languages — Latin, Polish, and German, and both
in prose and verse. This is not to be woudei'ed
at ; for where there is freedom for action, actions
are performed ; and wherever actions are per-
formed, if any literature exists, there are histo-
rians to celebrate them.

The Poles are the only people among the Scla-
vonian nations who have a systematic legislature.
Some of the Sclavonian tribes have no written
law; ancient customs constitute all their juris-
prudence. Others were arrested in the very act
of making their own statutes, and were constrain-
ed to adopt the laws imposed upon them by their
foreign rulers. In this situation are fiohemia

LETTERS ON rOLAND.

and Moi-avia. Others, as the RuBBiaus, were go-
verned by the special iikazes of their Dukes and
Czars. Uuder the present Emperor an attempt
has been made to systematise them into a corpus
, juris. The legislature of the Poles is like their
history, very voluminous : it bears the same spi-
rit as their elective system, and was unfortunate-
ly attended with the same laxity in the execution,
^eb- statutes and constitutions are entirely na-
tional, either suggested by particular circumstan-
ces, or fonuded on their ancient usages {consuS'
fiidlnes). Though they were also conversant
with the Roman law, their learned lawyers have
jjot yet beea able to ascertain whether this had
any influence on the Polish legislation. It is, I
believe, more probable that the difficulty of ap-
plying the Roman law to the very different na-
tional character of the Poles rendered this study
in Poland rather an object of curiosity than of
- practical utility.

As for the poetry of Poland, it was, for a long
time, written partly in Latin, and partly in Po-
, lish. Only of late has the mother tongue been
I iexclusively employed. In both languages the
■poles have excellent poems. In both the species
u t)f poetry are nearly the same, namely, versified
LlJironicles and legends — lyrics, pastorals, elegies,
/t'Satires, songs, and vei-ses, on different occasions.
s early attempts were made in the drama and

OUTLINE OF LEAUNINi;

the epic : the latter, by Casiinir SarbiewBki, in
liis Lechiad ; a poem in which he proposed to
describe the origin of the Polish natiou, which
design he left unfinished.

Specimens of dramatic pieces began to appear
in Poland to^vards the middle of the sixteenth
century. The first apetimens were the trage-
dies of Sophroma, written by Sebastian of Len-
ceyca,and of the Mags, by Bernard Ochin. The
Return of the Greek Amhaasadors was composed
by John KochanowsJti. Tliis piece was written
for a particular occasion, and was represented in
Uiazdow. Shortly afterwards appeared a niunber
of religious mysteries, the subjects of which were
taken from holy writ. The best, to my know-
ledge, is JosephuE Castus, by Simonowicz, who is
better known as a pastoral poet. These pieces,
for a long time, used to be performed in monas-
teries and schools. They were written for the
most part in Latin, and sometimes in Polish :
those in the latter of these languages are still i>er-
formed in some parts of Poland at Christmas, for
the amusement of the common people. The . es-
tablishment of a regular stage in Poland took
place about the middle of the eighteenth century.
The pieces performed were mostly translations
&om the French of Comeille, Racine, and Mo-*
liere. These foreign models, however, diverted
the Poles from original composition. The origi-

'86

I-ETTEHS ON I'OLAND.

•nal Polish dramas began to appear on the stage
towards the end of the last century, r
' The spirit that distinguishes all Polish poetry,
and, indeed, all the poetry of the Selavonians, is
'Mildness. It reflects, as I have elsewhere shown,
"file i)eaceful aspect of the landscape, and has for
"its theme, the quiet occupations of agricultural
"and pastoral hfe. Poland is the country of rural
poetry ; and in this her literature has always ex-
celled. TheoLTitus and Virgil have not, in my
wpinion, introduced more real imagery of rural
fife into their poetry than Simoiiowica and Kar-
pinski. Their thoughts, an well as their expres-
iBions, are simple : their learning, when they do
'^ow it, is not cumbersome, but is empjoyed to
■*iend an expression to their poetic images. In
reading them you cannot fancy them but as hap-
py ploughmen, following their ploughs, or sowing
the seed which they expect soon to reap ; or as
shepherds, reclining on the sloping hill-side, or

Banqueting through the flowery vales.

And woods su full of nightingales.

These mild features of rural life have so com-

■"^letely modelled the habitual temper of the Poles,

*fiiat they have transfused the spirit which they

■Tnspire into all their literary compositions. Rural

iiagery and the realities of rural life breathe in

■ elegies, their tragedies, and even their co-

Imedies : and the more these enter as elements.

POLWICAL TEEW. 97

the more' tbeir {MroctueChmd hmre tb^ genuine
stamp of nationaKtrf. • ' ' -

The Pidish poetry^ has of late been historical,
for iW diief object has been to commemorate 'the
^orious achiei'^ements of the aiideM PoksK. 'hs
g^iieral strain, therefore, is el^^iaei * The eoctlriet
of ancient glory t>nth snbseqtH^ misfortuiie9'4iii-
poses the ndnd of this people to a mournful best
rfideat. • ■ ••'•■-•• ■ -••■ -*..%•♦

' ' '^ The mathematical and }di3^ical sciences b^gan
to flourish in the fifteenth centmy ; and in tlMrfr
iprogress they have -at one time rapidly advanced,
and at another have been neglected. But of this
hereafter, as also of the speculative sciences df e
moml nature, i My <>b&ffiTrations respecting Po-
land have yet been only graeral and euracoy, but
I'shall speak m6r^ explij»tly in the se^pi^^ '^^ i**
/ Such is a summaiy view of the modei^ lit^m-
ture of all the Selavonian natiims* The Poles
and Russians alone 'can be said to possess any in*
dependent literary fame. The rest of the Sclavo-
nians await their emancipation from the yoke of
foreign literature, mider which their own i» )plto-
getter depressed, and can nev^ rise to any emi-
nence. Most of these nations are subject to the
German sceptre, and somie to the Turks. Their
civilization must continue to be but faint so loi^
as tlieir native literature is thus kept in servitude
to one whkh is foreign. . The language in which

I,F,TTE11S OX POLAND.

one has heard his lullaby sung while au infant,
is the fittest to convey him wisdom when a man.
Europe, having long eniploytd the Latin language
in all her works and important concerns, as the
only commimicfltive medium, was a long time
but a minor to the Greeks and Romans, and had
properly no literature of her own. But Europe
soon rose into manhood, after the diflerent na-
tions began to think and write in their own lan-
guages. Such helpless minors, however, are the
Sclavoniaiis at present, to the amouut of no less
than twenty milhons ; and, what must be greatly
lamented, they have no fair prospect of ever ar-
riving at a state of manhood.

But it may be here objected, that the Stlavoniait
tribes, being amidat a people so civilized as the Ger-
mans, ought not to remain long in tltis depressed
state of ignorance. The objection might, indeed,
apply to a rude }>eople coming in contact with one
more civihzed, of the same origin, but it does not
hold with respect to the Sclavoniaos, a people alto-
gether different from the Germans. They cannot
sympathise with the Germans in any tiling. To
be the successful instructors of a jieople, it is ne-
cessary to establish first a mutual sympathy ; and
the Germans cannot do this on account of the na-
tional hatred prevailing amongst the Solavonians
' against them. The diversity of language is an
obstacle to such sympathy. To promote civihza-

POUXICA^ VLEW.-

lion, it is necessary that the natives shmiJii t-xteiui
it among the natives, through the medium of
their mother tongue.

The iniud dwells with delight on the ages in
which the national languages have displaced the
foreign, and iu which the prevalence of the native
literature has at length given rise to a general U-
teraiy enthusiasm. An Italian is proud of the
age of Dante and Petrarch, who first made their
countrymen listen to tlie sonorous stanzas of their
own language. The French reckon the golden
era of their literature to liave been during the
reign of Lewis XIV. when a great variety of ex-
cellent works were written in their own language.
The English and Germans, since they began to
wiite their mother tongues, and to develope in
them eaeh their peculiar casts of miud, soon came
to get the start of all Europe in national litera,-
ture. The authors they have produced are as nu-
mei"0U8 as the stars of the Via lactea, and like it,
too, are bright and everlasting. But there are
some single luminaries to whom the sympathies
of nations must ever cling, for no other reason
than because they were the first to write their na-
tive tongue, and may, therefore, be said to shine
like solitary stars amid the darkness of the agea
in which they lived. Such is Luther. Luther
has done more for Germany by his translation of
the Bible into German, than all the Latin-learai'd

QfO Lr,1*rtas on POtAUD.

monks before him. The French, again, are proud
of their Troubadours ; and the Germans refer the
glory of their poetry rather to the Mine-singers
and Meister-singers, than to the Latin odes of
their BaJdeus. The first contain the free native
'efiiisions of the soul in the vernacular, the other
foi a borrowed and dead language. The Poles ad-
I "mire the Latin odes of their Casimir Sarbievcski,
and sometimes take pleasure in reading ," Cre-
I 'dite, lo, credite posteri ;" but their sympatliies
•ding to John Kochanowski, when he, in their na-
tive tongue, pours out the deep feelings of his
I "peneive spirit. It is not, I thinit, the want of
I -tiiought that made the modem Latin poets infe-
^or in reputation to those who have written in
I the native language, for they are known to have
I ^en the greatest poets of the period in which they
, lived ; but it is the difficulty, I may venture to say,
I "^ translating the particular native ideas into an
l^iMiom to which fi-om birth they were strangers,
I Vhich cramped their inspiration, and rendered
I ' their task heavy, and their labour unpopular.
I 4lad there been no such inconvenience, the sub-
[ iime soul of Milton might have appeared with the
li^ame graces in his Latin Hexameters as in his
1 paradise Lost; and our Kochanowski's Latin ele-
■!^es might have been equal to liis " Laments,"
K%ut the case is quite the reverse.

The historical remarks I have here introduced,

POLITICAL VIEW,

in order to illustrate the disadvantages of using
the Latin language, are equally applicable to any
of the modern languages in their influence upon the
Sdavonian countries ; for they have had the same
withering effect upon the native literature, wher-
ever jmlitical circumstances rendered the study of
them necessary. The foreign languages, I think,
should only be viewed as foreign goods, rather as
articles of luxury than for daily use. Wherever
these have become necessary, their effect has never
been harmless. In Bohemia and Moravia, wliere
th(! Austrian government made the German the
language of the court, of the schools, and of po-
lite society, the national literature has declined,
A result somewhat similar threatens to take place
in GaUicia, where the German is also introduced
with the view of Grermanizing three millions of
Poles. Such attempts must prove as vain as they
are illiberal. Centuries could not transform the
Vendens in Lusatia and Mecklenburgh, almost in
the centre of Germany, into Germans, nor the
Slovaks in Hungary into Hungarians. They even
preserve the Sclavonic names of towns, villages,
rivers, and mountains; while the foreigner amidst
whom they live bestow on them others from theii*
own language. The endeavours to metamorphose
nations cannot have any general success : they may
prevail over a few individuals ; but the bidk of the
community must resist them, Tlicy can only

LET^EKS ON POLAND.

serve to retard the progrees of civilization, which,
in course of ages, will at last be triumphant in
spite of all obstacles, and posterity in its future
annalfi will curse its depressors.

Such is the unhappy consequence of the Sclavo-
ttian tribes being dissevered from the great body
<rf their kindred nations. Anciently they used to
denominate every foreigner a Jhe. If they now
^ply the same epithet, it ia the foreigners who
are to blame. The philaotJiropy of the present
day should have taught them manners more con-
ciliating. All tlie Sclavonian tribes, with the ex-
r«eptiou of those under the wise and moderate go-
vernment of Prussia, are swayed by a regardless
uid oppressive sceptre, which, instead of encou-
' raging them to keep pace with other nations in
improvement, actually prohibits them from doing
and thus they are stationary, and even retro-
; grade. We see the most powerful nations on the
globe grouped according to their respective lan-
guages ; all their moral and physical strength
aeema to depend upon this independent union.
-There are some who have, even after their down-
feU, still survived in their language, — as theGreeks
and Romans. In like manner, why should not the
[ Sdavonians enjoy the advantages to which their
[ language entitles them ? Rivers, mountains, seas,
[ and other sorts of boundaries, are barriers that
may be overcome, or like ditches that may be leapt

POLITICAL VIEW. 93

over : But the language is a granite rock ; which,
however deep you may pierce, remains hard and
impenetrable. Suppose a barbarian should de-
stroy a whole nation, the last survivor would
never recognize him as a brother : for the mother
tongue is not the same. A common language
makes one family of the most extensive nation;
and, ad far as the language reaches, the god Ter«
minus extends the empire of the people. ESvery
principle that would oppose the union of a people
possessing one common language, is, in political
system, false and illiberal. All the Sclavonians
unconsciously tend to this union with each other,
as if to a common centre of gravitation. There
are barriers which they have to surmount : they
need a Herculean hand to remove them. But
sooner or later this Hercules must be bom in the
energy of his people.

LETTER IV.

Dn Comior^s f* State of Learning in Potandt" and Remarks &n U
•^Oriental Languages-^ens and Tartars — Siudy of the
Greeks Latin^ French, English, and German,

Deab Sib,
After so long a survey of the ditferent Sda-
Vonian countries, and the intricate mazes of theur
complicated fortunes, it gives me pleasure to find
myself at last on the grpund of Poland : and

" Still as I view each well-known scene^
Think what is now and what has been.''

Henceforth I shall confine my observations to that
coufltry ; and, in giving you an account of the
state of its literature, I shall avail myself of a few
passages from the History of Poland, written by
your countryman, Dr Connor, in 1698. He was
physician to our king John Sobieski, and seems to
hare been a man who knew how to collect ac-
curate information, and to digest what he observ-
ed. Quotations from so respectable an authority
will best suit my purpose. In these, therefore, I
shall not be sparing, and shall endeavour to sup-

STATE OF LEARNING.

ply from my own information whatever I find to
be deficient.

" In the kingdom of Poland and great duchy of
Lithuania," says he, " there ai-e two famous univer-
sities, with all sorts of professors. The former of
these was founded at Cracow by Casimir the Great,
and was finished by Jagello, or Vladislaus V^ in
the year 1401, couformable to the last will and
testament of the queen Hedvige ; and the latter
at Wilna, being at first but an academy founded
by King Stephen, but afterwards was erected in-
to a university by Pope Gregory XIII. at the re-
quest of Valerian, bishop of that city, who had
very much augmented the colleges and endow-
ments."

So far Dr Connor is right. But he omits to
mention the university of Zamosc, founded by the
celebi'ated John Zamoyski, which, though less
richly endowed than the others, can, however,
boast of some celebrated professors, aud has pro-
duced some excellent scholars. This institution
participated in the disasters of the country, which
at last brought it to decay. The Count Stanis-
laus Zamoyski, the descendant of its founder, re-
estabUshed it in the form of an extensive Gymna-
sium ; but removed it from Zamosc to auotlier
place, called Szczebrzeszyn, There were also
three inferior academies in Leopol, Olyka, and
Folock ; but they were more properly aeminaxies

96 LETTERS ON POLAyD.

for the education of the clergy, anil particularly of

the Jesuits. The academy of Polock remained in

the possession of the Jesuits till the entire ex-

i- ^pulsion of that order from Russia in the year

, 1830.

After this comment, let us now advert to the
. Itdlowing passage :

I - "In hoth theet; Universities the chief study is
I to speak good Latin, for as to all parts of polite
I Jeaming, the Poles are not so curious as in other
1 conntrieR, yet have they a great many that M'ill
j .Write good verses, for their genius is mightily
I ifcent that way ; and, heaides, they are very apt
l,|o quote classic authors in their discourse, and
, this particularly when they get drunk, which is
Wry frequently. Their poet Sarbievius Casimir
I is no small ornament to his country, who, in his
I odes, has endeavoured to imitate Horace, and the
[. {nrity of his language is not contemptible."

Nothing is more true than this ; and, if I may
[ Judge from this passage, your countryman must
llave heen a "jolly companion." He must have
, been often in parties, where the Poles got drunk,
I and probably often drank along with them a ri-
I #rw») glorioaum.* He tells ua, that he was at a

' The vilriwi gloriosim is the Polisli tumbler. It Was ca-
[ .Ipable of containing an e()ual quantity with the half of yoiic
t (epmmon bottle. It viai finely laboured with engraved R-

STATE OF LEARNING.

great hunting-match with King John Sobieski.
and dined with him. He seems to have received
frequent invitations from the first cliaracters in
Poland ; he spells tlie Polish names well, in which
most foreigners fail, who have not received cards.
He mu£t also have heen a pretty good scholar,
for he quotes Csesar and Suetonius, and our histo-
rians Piasetki and Heidenstein. He knew even
the Latin poems of our Casimir Sarbiewski ; hut
in the cold indifferent approbation which he be-
stows on him, that " the purity of his language is
not contemptible," I cannot acquiesce, and have
the strongest authority on my side. I heard you
once maintain, that " the Latin of the Polish
poet is purer than that of the Scottish Buchanan."
Again, I read in Coleridge's Biog^aphia Literaria.
that Sarbiewski is superior to the English Cow-
ley.* I am naturally disposed to think well of
my countrymen ; but, I confess, I set more value

gurea, anil was handed round, when the healtli of any one
in the company was proposed. Every one was obliged, to
drink it to the bottom, else he was considered as insulting
the person whose health waa drunk. The custom, though
not entirely in disuse on birth-days and wedding solemnities,
is now obsolete, " more honouied in tlie breach than the
observance."

• " His style and diction are really dasGicalj while Cow-
ley, who resembled Casimir in many respects, completely
barbarizes his Latinity, and even his metre, by the hctero-
geneoua nature of hia thoughts," — Vol. 11. p. 29,^
O

LETTERS ON POl.ANIl.

(Ml the opitiiou of foreigners concerning him than
.-my own, particularly when they prefer ours to
l^eirs.

It is pleasing to quote such an auUiority as that
.of Dr Connor, not because it is flattering, but be-
.*ause it is true, since he was so well acquainted
' -botli with the learning and the domestic affairs of
ithe Poles. Let us then indulge a little more in this
. spleasure :

' They have had several Latin historians among
-rtliem, such as Cromerus, Starovoiscius, &c. who
•Aave all written the annals and constitutions of
^eir country. They have likewise had some his-
:itorians wlio have written in their own language.
'They also have not been wanting in learned di-
.vines, great philosophers, famous astronomers, lo-
, -gicians, &c. The grt'at astronomer Nicolaus Co-
pernicus was a native of this country, having had
his birth in the city of Thoru in Regal Prussia.*
The reason why these learned men have not
transmitted more to posterity was, because that
while they lived there was but little or no print-
ing in Poland."

Now, after such an account, can you fail to en-

■ tertain a very different opinion of the Poles who
' have been treated with so much disparagement in

■ the writings of ignorant or malevolent foreigners?

' See Appendix, Note 3.

STATE OF LEARNING. 99

Chi reading this passage, my national feelings are
almost as proud as yours must be, who have Ba-
con, Newton, Hume, and Tillotson. But I feel
it humihating to think that we have nomatdifor
Shakespeare.

I shall here mentioo some of these celebrated
men, that you may judge for yourself, whether the
Poles have reason to be so proud of them. At
the head of them may be placed Copeniicus, bom
in the year 1473. Vitellio, (Ciolek,) who, in the
begimuug of the thirteenth century, first in Eu-
rope elucidated the theory of light, long before
Newton : Gregory of Sanok lived about the year
1440, and already, at that early period, about
one hundred years before Bacon, he affirmed
the scholastic philosophy to be somnia vigilaa-
tium : ZaJuzanski, in the seventeenth century,
discovered the fructification of the plants before
Linnaeus, to whom, however, this discovery is
commonly attributed : Casimir Sarbiewski, the
modem Horace of Europe : Bzovius, an elegant
continuator of Baronius's History of the Church :
Hosius, President of the famous Council of Trent
in 1562.* Of many others 1 shall acquaint you
hereafter. In different coimcils of the church we
see the clergy of Poland occupy the next seat to
the clergy of Bouonia, which was held as a very

' See Appendix, Note 4.

100

LETTERS ON FOLAND.

honourable place, and to which nothing but sjijw-
rior learning could have entitled them. * '^

" The divines in Poland make all their learn-
ing consist in adapting Aristotle's logics and me-
taphysics to their school divinity, so that you may
every where hear them talk much of Entities,
Modes, Quiddities, Essences of Things, and the
liiie, for they value themselves more in being well
versed in the signification of logical terms, than
in the nature of things which they reason about.
In this country they have a particular veneration
for Albertus Magnus, and quote him ui support of
any assertion, in like manner as the Spaniards
and Italians are accustomed to do Aristotle, though
they have not less respect for the last philosopher
than other nations have. Yet, notwithstanding,
thiey seldom take right his meauing, and pai-ticu-
larly in matters that are ambiguous, for they have
pubhshed several large commentaries upon htm
which do frequently contradict one another,"

Here you find some praise and a great deal of
censure. I must confess that, at the end of
the seventeenth century, to which Dr Connor's
account relates, theology and philosophy ought
not to have been in such a state. But at this
time Poland hatl made a i-eti'ograde march in
iterature. She became more than ever a Catho-

• SeoVl

mdix. Note 5.

STATE OF LEAENING.

101

lie country, by the oppression of Protestant sects.
Tlie Jesuits, as I ivill show in another place, de-
pressed the minds of the people by fanaticism.
They cultivated with ardour the scholastic philo-
sophy; for it promoted the discussion o? Jitrms,
and diverted the mind from inquiring into reali-
ties. After the era of Bacon, most Protestant
countries followed either his path,, or one of their
own, in searching after useful knowledge; the Je-
suits in Poland recalled almost all that the Doc-
tores Seraphici, Angclici, Irrefi-agabiles had ever
dreamed. This period was the foi*enmner of the
evil destiny which subsequently befel the Poles.
Still, however, though their powers were directed
to useless objects, yet they could not discontinue
the activity to which they had been inured in for-
mer and better times.

" Ae for physicians in Poland," says tlie Doc-
tor, " there ai-e no great numbers there, and those
few that are, for the most part, are either French,
Italians, or Giermans, scarce any of the natives
caring to addict themselves to that profession."

His observation is but partly just. It is just
in reference to the period at which it was made,
when there really was a scarcity of physicians
who were natives ; but in reference to former times
the remark does not hold. History informs us,
that the Poles, before this period, had a number
of celebrated physicians. These were graduated

'loa

LETTERS ON POLAND.

sometimee in the univereity at Cracow, and some-
times in foreign academies. Copernicus himseif
was graduated doctor of medicine at Padua ; and
80 also were many others of the Poles. Some
were celebrated even abroad for their professional
, skill. Martin of Olkusz, in the middle of the fif-
teenth century, was phyeician to Mathiaa Corwin,
King of Himgary ; Felix of howicz, author of se-
veral medical works, was physician to tJie Empe-
ror Charles V. ; Struthius was several times called
to Spain when the life of Philip II. was in dan-
ger, and also to Soliman II. Sultan of Turkey.
He must of course have been one of the most ce-
lebrated physicians in Europe.* You see then
that Dr Connor's assertion is not altogether well
founded. But his objection against the " jwv'tfe"
of the Poles, which disinclined them to the study
of medicine, is just, at least in reference to the pe-
riod at which he wrote, when there was a genera)
prejudice against all professions, and that of me-
dicine among the rest. Even lawyers were de-
spised. " Of the honesty of this profession, the
Poles," says Dr Connor, " had as little opinion as
any people in Europe." The only occupations
held in honour amongst tliem was the sword in
war, and the council in peace ; for these were con-
cerned in the welfare of the whole commonwealth.

' BeeNotag.

STATE Ol' LliAHNING-

All Other professionp, whicli drew any pecuniary
rewards, were looked upon as illiljeral and de-
grading. The practice of some of them was even
forbidden by the law, on pain of forfeiting honour.
For instance, if it conld be proved of a nobleman
that he retailed by yards or by pints, he irrecover-
ably lost his rank and respectability in society.
A nobleman would rather plough than trade ;
and it often happened that he was called to war
from the plough, and returned, like Cincinnatns,
to the plough to cultivate the land he had defend-
ed. Thus you see the Poles liave always follow-
ed noble and liberal callings. Lower, though
more profitable pursuits were neglected, and held
subordinate to the more generous motives of pro-
moting the good of the whole community. A
prodigal liberality was their predominant charac-
ter. Usury, being held as a most degrading prac-
tice, and unworthy of a Christian, was left to the
Jews. At one time it was reckoned a matter of
indifference for a nobleman to understand arith-
metic. The avri sacra fames was despised. In
the twelfth century, when the German Emperor
conducted Skarbek, tlie Polish Ambassador, to
show him his treasury, of which he appeai-ed to
be proud, tlie Ambassador took off a golden ring
from his finger, and, throwing it into the treasury,
said, " Let the gold join with tlic gold."' The
Emperor meanly replied, " Habc danh" (I thank

104

LETTEUS ON POLAND.

you.) It is a pleasing tiling to trace tlie dignity
of hiunan nature to its remote luicorrupted source,
and contemplate its aspect appearing even tlu-ough
prejudices, in features at once so simple and so
briglit !

Dr Coimor tells us farther, that " the Poles are
extremely expert in speaking and in writing La-
tin ; yet they are not curious of any oriental lan-
guages." It is tiTie that the study of these, at the
time of his residence in Poland.was neglected ; but,
in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, they were
much studied at the University of Cracow. David
Leonard,in li>28,aDd John Campseii, in 1534, were
public professors in that place. Starikar and Grzeh-
ski are recorded to have written it with facihty
Basil Golynski could speak it. Albert Gryglicki and
some others understood not only the apcient but
the modern oriental languages ; some having ac-
quired tliem from books, others during a long cap-
tivity among the Tiu'ks, with whom the Poles had
[ frequent wai-s. At the time of tlie Reformation
I m particular, a knowledge of the oriental langua-
was indispensable in making translations of
[ ibe Bible into Polish. Wiijek, wlio was the priu-
[ dpal translator, knew Hebrew, and consulted tlie
[original text.

The study of eastern literature has beeu renew-

[ cd in later ^raes in the University of Wilna ; and

Jiere are now three orientalists of some note. Pro-

ORIENTAL LANGUAGES.

105

fessors Zukowski.Bobrowski, and Senlcowski. The
Count Rzewuski is an oriental scholar of tbe firet
eminence. During his long stay at Vienna, he
formed, with Dr Hammer, the plan of publishing
a repository of Asiatic literature, called Fundgru~
hen des Orients, which is now considered as the
best work of the kind on the Continent, and to
which he is himself a contiibutor. He travelled
in the East for about four years ; and has lately
returned, bringing, no doubt, great treasures of
oriental knowledge. His journey to the ruins of
Palmyra has been published in the New London
Magazine. His longest stay was in Arabia.

It may be farther remarked, that, from the num-
ber of Jews residing in the coiuitry, Hebrew is no-
where better known, or the study of it more faci-
litated than in Poland. Some of that nation lay
claim even to scholarship in Hebrew. Hulewiez
wrote De Linguae Graecje regulis eiiisque cum He-
braicis Harmonia, L. Bat. 1746. Rozenfeid, a
learned Jew, now living at Warsaw, is about this
time expected to publish his History of Poland in
Hebrew. The Polish Rabbins are, in point of
learning, tlie most celebrated among the Jews in
Eiu'ope — particularly for their thorough know-
ledge of the Bible, and of the Talmud, which is its
Commentary, and is regarded as the legal code of
the Jews, They have a sort of Academy in
Brzcsc, where the Rabbins are educated. Very

106

LETTEllS ON POLAND.

few of the common Jews, however, understand
the Hebrew thoroughly : most of them recite or
rather ehaunt their Hebrew prayers, in a sort of
nasal twang, witliout knowing the meaning.
■ The same remark may be applied to nearly
80,000 of the Polish Tartars, who recite by rote
the dogmaa of the Alcoran, while the Molnaa
done possess the key to their meaning, over all
the Mechet parishes. These Tartars came, along
with their wives and c]iildren, in the fourteenth
oentury to Poland, exiled from their own coun-
Iry in consequence of a revolt, in which they had
' a hand. They found protection under Witold, a
■ warlike duke of Lithuania, brother to the King
[ lof Poland. He assigned to this fugitive tribe
I settlements near Wilna and Biala, where they
liave lived till the present day in villages, aa land-
ed proprietors. They have repaid, on different
I ficcasions, this hospitality with attachment to the
Poles. In war they used to join the Polish army
en horseback. Bielak was their famous leader un-
der Kosciuszko. Their troop, called itlatty, ocoirs
in the modem European tactics under the name
of lancers, so formidable in the campaigns of
Napoleon. A regiment of such Tartar lancers,
I "With turban and crescent, followed Napoleon to
Moscow, to fight in the cause of Poland. They
are naturalized Poles, and known as men of ac-
knowledged probity. And it is remarkable of

CLASSIC LITERATUllE.

107

them, that, in the judicial transactions, no docu-
ment exists (rf a Tartar being ever found charge-
able with any criminal act.

The Greek language, neglected in the seven-
teenth and eighteenth centuries by the Jeauits,
had been much studied in the two preceding cen-
turies. The first public professors of Greek in
the University of Cracow were Liban of Ligiiitz,
and Illiciu, an Italian. Subsequently, there was
no literary chai'acter in Poland who did not xm-
derstand it. The Greek became at last so com-
mon, that in the latter part of the fiisteenth cen-
tury there was no school of any consequence in
Cracow, or over all the country, where it was not
taught. At this time numerous translations were
made fi-om the Greek into Polish. While few of
the European nations, except the Italians, thought
of making any such attempts, the Poles knew
Anacreon, Homer, and the voluminous works of
Aristotle, from translations.

The taste for Greek literature has, after a long
interruption, been again revived. Within tlte short
period of the last twenty years there have appear-
ed no less than three translations of Homer, by
Dmochowski, Przybylski, and Staszyc : a trans-
lation of Lucian by Krasicki, and one of Plutarch
by Golanski. Translations of all the Greek trage-
dies are now preparing for publication, by Mr
Okrawewria, aind of Xcaophon'B worics by Jaj

108

LETTERS ON POLAND.

I lo. Different learned men have united to promote
L tile taste for Greek literature : but to none of
f these are the Poles so much indebted as to Grod-
[ deck, professor of Greek and Latin literature in
r Wilna. The exquisite taste displayed in his lec-
[ tares on the classics endears this literature to his
r pupils, and promotes the study of it throughout
the country, wherever their learned avocations
"! call them. From the multiplicity of objects which
> his lectures embrace, the complete course occupies
[ no less than four years, though he lectures two
[ hours every day during nine months. In his
f writings he combines the deep learning of a phi-
I lologist with the exquisite taste of a modern
r scholar. His views of the philosophy, poetry,
and antiquities of Greece and Rome, are no less pro-
* found than interesting and instructive.

Dt Connor farther informs us, that he has some-
f Vhere read that " almost all tlie common people-
in Poland speak Latin fluently ; that he had a
servant, while in that countiy, who always used
I to talk to him in that language ; that when Si-
S gismimd the First sent the Bishop of Warmia
f bis ambassador to Vienna, the Emperor was sur-
I larised to hear even the Polish coachman speak
[ Latin fluently. Also, after Sigismund IL's death.
r when ambassadors were sent to bring Henry of
rValois into Poland, the French wondered, that
K>t one of all their train but spoke their language

CLASSIC LITERATURE,

109

with great address." The same account in favour
of tlie Latinity of the Poles is confirmed by the
historian De Thou.

For this Dr Connor assigns varioiis reasons, all
of which may be true : the first is even somewhat
naive. " The chief reasons," eays he, " why the
Poles generally afiect the Latin, is, first. From
their natural dispositions to learn it. Secondly,
By reason of the syntax of their mother tongue,
the Sclavonian, Avhich has great afSnity with that
language, for they both decline their nouns and
conjugate their verbs as the Romans did. Third-
ly, Because in all the villages throughout the na-
tion they have schoolmasters for that purpose,
who are eitlier rectors of parishes, or some other
qualified person appointed by them, or by the
bishop of the diocese. And, fourthly. Because in
all towns of note the Jesuits have colleges set
apart to instruct youth in that language."

This is a real fact. Let us take a historical
view to illustrate the phenomenon more fully.
Previous to the Reformation very little had been
written in the Polish language. The Latin was
introduced into that country along with the Ro-
man Catholic religion. It became the language
of the chm'ch service — of the schools — of the
court — of pubhc business — and of good society.
In short, Latin was then considered to be the
true source of knowledge, and the only vehicle

110

LETTERS ON POLAND.

IcH' communicating it to otiiers. In Cracow even
sermons were preached in Latin, and tliis not be-
fore a select, but a mixed congregation. This
may be a pretty strong proof that the Latin was
much cultivated in Poland, at least in Cracow,
which was the principal seat of learning. I
doubt, however, whether a knowledge of it was
equally diffused over all her provinces. It is pos-
eibJe, and even probable, that even in the parish
schools Latin was taught ; yet the language of
the great body of the common people mvst have
Continued to he the Polish. The servants of the
nobility knew, indeed, Latii:, for they had oppor-
tunity to acquire it by hearing the conversation
of their masters : besides, this set of people in
Poland were commonly half scholars ; who, though
Imm peasants, recommended themselves, by means
of a little Latin, to some menial situation at the
courts of the nobles, which waa held to be a place
' 'of some honour.

In Poland, as in other countries, the native
■language was, at an early period, considered as
■ unfit for literary compositions. The ecclesiastics,
'at that time the only class of men who had any
; pretension to learning, received all their educa-
tion through the medium of the Latin language.
'They were, therefore, better acquainted with it
than ivitli, their mother tongue ; and wrote it
ease, and even elegance.

CLASSIC LITER ATUEE.

The Reformation having ext4inded from Ger-
many to Poland, threatened to introduce a change
of language as well as of opinion. The religious
dogmas which till then had been the mysteriea of
the priestcraft, like the hieroglyphics among the
ancient priests of Egypt, were now to be divulg-
ed, and, for the temporal as well as the eternal
happiness of mankind, were to be disseminated
among all classes of the nation. Among the most
expedient means employed for these purposes was
a language intelligible and familiar to the people.
The Polish language accordingly began, now for
the first time, to be used in public speaking and
writing, and was employed both by the reformers
and by their opponents. The former employed
it as an instrument to destroy the old supersti-
tions and abuses ; the latter to check the progress
of what they declared to be a dangerous revolu-
tion. The arguments of both were addressed to
the common people, to convince them of the truth
or falsehood of what was stated, that they might
choose according to their own conviction. It was
the first time that men of learning were seen
standing before the tribunals of plebeians, the ac-
cused and accusers of each other. It was the first
time that learned pride appealed to the simple na-
tural understanding of the ignorant, and expect-
ed from them an jiltimate decision.

During these altercations, it may perhaps be

lis

LETTEltS ON POLAND.

thought, that the study^ of Latin must then have
become only of secondary consequence ; but nO.
It was studied with mttre eagerness tlian ever ;

"for works written in this language were the only
stores which afforded weapons of attack, and sup-
plied skill in disai-ming an adversary ; its study,

'tlierefore, suffered not the least intermption, but

^engaged an equal share of attention with the na-

♦tive language. In disputes which the learned
maintained with the learned, the Latin was em-
ployed ; in addressing the people, the vernacular

■^ongTie. In both voluminous works were publish-
'ed ; but still the greater number of these were
written in Latin. I might here instance the large

I folios of the Bibliotheca Fratrum Polonorum, and
the ponderous volumes of Polish Chronicles and

.Statutes.

It is stiU farther remarkable, that, at the same

1 period in which the Polish language appeared in
its vigour, the Latin was also spoken and written
in greatest purity. Cromer's Clironicle of Poland,
and the Polish translation of it, made their ap-
pearance almost at the same time ; and the one is
as remarkable for the elegance of its Latin, as the
other for that of the Polish. The same observa-
tion may be applied to many other works both in
prose and verse. Thus the same period which is
Btyled by the Poles the golden era of their native
f ■Jlteratflre, waa also that of their Latin.

OltlENTAX LANGUAGES.

113

At a subsequent period, some of the elective
kings, who were for the most part enlightened men,
eagerly promoted the study of the ciassics. Ste-
phen Bathory used to address the school-boys
with his " Dii-ce puer Lafine, Ego te Jiiciam
Mosci Panie;' (a great Lord.) This was a very
popidar act of the sovereign, and gave great en-
couragement to young scholars. The Poles have
for a long time been accustomed to regai-d the
classics as the source of all knowledge : they were
fond of pursuing the path of their ancestors. The
literature of other Europeai; nations was yet in its
infancy, and of too doubtful a value to divert the
attention of the Poles,

The study of Latin was promoted still more by
the Jesuits, who introduced it into their schools,
and made it an important branch of education, in
preference even to the mother tongue. Their
order had been originally brought into Poland by
the Catholics, for the purpose of suppressing the
heresies', as they called theiu, of the Lutlierans,
CaJvinists, Socinians, Arians, and othei*s. These
last teachers used to address their congregations in
the mother tongue, which they introduced also
into their church liturgy. The Jesuits directed
all their efforts and address to undermine the na-
tive language, and to establish in its stead the La-
tin as before. A popular language would have
exposed their doctrine to the people, and perhaps

114

LETTERS ON POLAND.

have raised iloubta against their veracity, by
enlightening tlie minds of the laity ; to which
consequences tliey were very violently opposed.
They wished to keep loiowledge as their own ex-
clusive property ; and a learned language like the
Latin seemed the fittest instrument to aid them in
their design. In promoting it they succeeded in a
wonderful degree. The numerous convents which
they had founded in aU parts of the country, and
the schools attached to each, helped thera in mo-
nopolieing the business of education of the youth,
and in becoming also masters of the consciences of
l.fte people.

At this time the Polish language began to lose

I its purity, and to become more and more over-

I .diarged with quotations of sentences from the

|,J<atin, which glittering foil was looked upon as

1 igennine precious gems ; so that sometimes it was

i diffiaUt to decide whether the language was a Po-

f Ionized Latin or a Latinized Polish. The mania

rf Latinizing every thing arrived at last to such

(m excess, under the reign of the two Saxon Au-

' gustuses, that whole poems were got up, in which

. tile greatest pai-t of the Polish words, by affixing

ijatin terminations to them, assumed tlie ai>pear-

. aiice of the Latin, the style then taking the name

^ flf Macaronic.

It is remarkable, that, with this corruption, or,
a I may call it, anarchy of the language, the an-

MODEKN LANGUAGES.

115

aix'hy of the Polish government increased in the
same proportion ; and that, as soon as the lan-
guage began to emerge from its corruption, the
anarchy of the government began to clear away.
It is at least, in point of history, true, that the
patriotic efforts made under the reign of Stanis-
laus, the last King of Poland, were dii-ected against
both of these evils. Strange coincidence betwixt
the language and the government — betwixt the
literary and the political condition of the people.
It evidently shows, that the real strength of na-
tions depends upon their moral energies.

Such is a liistorica! view of the reign of the La-
tin language in Poland, It descended at last from
its former ambitious height to a more suitable,
though not less honoui'able, station in our schools
and academies, where it forms an important branch
of liberal education, but still is subordinate to the
native language, to the cultivation of which all
the efforts of the Poles are chiefly directed.

Foreign languages are much studied in Po-
land ; but in like manner as the Latin, they are
not considered so essential in themselves as for
the information of which they become the me-
dium ; that is, the acquisition of them is held
desirable as a means, but not as an end, — use-
ful in so far as they administer to the cravings
of minds engaged in literary and scientific pur-
suits. In this respect the Poles may be considei--

116

LETTERS ON POLAND.

ed to have been completely eclectic. They first
adhered to the study of the French language, be-
cause the French were at that time the most en-
lightened people in Europe. The works of their
poets and philosophers were universally regarded
as the ncplus ultra of excellence. These afford-
ed nourishment to their minds, and, being consi-
dered as the best standards at the time, gave a di-
rection to their mental exertions. If they were
much employed in transfusing into their own lan-
guage the ideas contained in them, they did it
principally in the view of enriching their own li-
terature.

' But, besides the translations from the French,
there appeared occasionally, in periodical works,
translations from the English, particularly of some
papers from the Spectator. These short speci-
mens were soon followed by translations of great-
er length, such as Johnson's Rasselas, Young's
Night Thoughts, Fielding's Tom Jones, Paradise
Regained, Pope's Essay on Criticism and Man,
and his Rape of the Lock, &c. The Poles ap-
pear to have perceived that a literature like the
French, which mounts upon stately stilts, could
not long be a guide for them in their more humble
and natural walk, and inclined, therefore, to the
more sober literature of the English. They possess
now many Pohsh translations of Ossian's Poems :
and, since the time of Krasicki and Tymieniecki,

MODERN LANGUAGES.

117

who first made their countrymen acquaiuteil with'
them, they multiply almost daily, from the parti-
cular predilection of the young poets for this spe-
cies of poetry. Shakespeare's Plays are, at this
day, objects of study in Poland, and the principal
pieces are frequently performed upon the stage at
Warsaw, Wilna, Cracow, and Leopol. The at-
tainment of the English language is greatly faci-
litated in Poland, there being public chairs for
teaching it in the universities. The stock of
translated English literature, consisting of speci-
mens from Shakespeare, Dryden, Milton, Pope,
Thomson, continually receives acc^sions from the
more modem English poete. *

I think the Poles are now more likely to ad-
vance under the guidance of English literature
than they could under any other. That literature,
hy its spirit, is the fittest to become a model which
every nation may safely follow, without prejudice

• In the course of the last year tlie following English
works appeared in Polish translations ; Sterne's Sentimental
Journey, by Klokocki ; Lord Byron's Bride of Abydos, by
Count Ostrowski ; his Corsair, and Sir Walter Scott's Lady
of the Lake, both by Mr Sienkiewicz ; Lay of ihe Last Min-
strel, by Brodziuski ; Wordsworth's " We are Seven," by
Niemcewit/ ; Lord Byron's " Fare Thee Well," Campbell's
Lochiel, and some other pieces of similar description, and
■elecL episodes from larger poems, accompanied frequently by
aesthetical remarks concernipg their individual merits.

I,F.TTE118 ON POLAND.

1 any way to its own national originality. Its
spirit is not fettered by any rules jjrescribed by
I -mitliority ; it follows the highest of all authori-
\ *ty — the law of nature. It does not school the
I bought, but expands its range as far as nature
I ieraelf extends.

The Poles, notwithstanding their local vicinity

I "to the Germans, and their being better acquainted

I "with the German language than with the English,

' liave never mounted on the soaring wings of the

I ti-anscendental mystic literature of that thought-

y4al nation. They admire generally Lessing, Schil-

I ler,Wieland,andGoetbc,audhaveniadetran8iations

of some of their works. Some of them devote

years of study to the philosophy of Kant, Ficlite,

■and Scliilling ; yet the German theories cannot

•thrive on the Polish soil. The Poles were long

ago known to be an active people, as Republicans

B. -generally are, and from the practical tone of their

' feelings, coidd not he expected to closet themselves

*op, like the German literati, disregarding practi-

E cal utility, to indulge in the jwnsive moods of

I'lheir ruminating and *' unbnsied" minds, or to

r^reani over the non-existence of visible and pal-

r ^ble objects, which tliey knew to exist from the

[' evidence of their five senses.

It is then not a mere unmeaning fasluon which
f lias led to the study of foreign languages in Po-
land. The Poles were in such political ciraun-

MODERN 14ANOUAGES. 119

stances as to make the knowledge of them neces-
sary. They, besides, were desirous of gratifying
the incessant longings of their intellect, by ac-
quiring them ; and, as their own literature was
inferior to those of the thr^ aforesaid nations,
they looked for substance and models wherever
they expected to find the best. In future, too, they
will resort to the French for models of versatility
of mind and light wit ; to the Germans for philo-
sophy and high intellectual reveries ; to the Eng-
lish for lofty poetry, and wise political ^d moral
principles. Any nation having such great models
before its eyes, cannot fail to advance in its march
pf progressive improvement. Constant study of
the best productions m^Jce artists perfect, as far a»
perfection is attainable ; this truth the Poles are
now about to illustrate in the hi^UJ>fy of theip ljL«
teratipre mA. mor^Iis.

LETTER V.

Primiiwe liislilalions fur Learning in Poland — Ereclion of
the Unioeniiy of Cracotu — lis Prerogalivex — Colleges of
Jesuits — Reform of EdHcalioit — lis Advantages — Present
Stale of the Universilies at Cracow, JVilaa, Warsaw, and
Leoptd — Regulations of Gymnasia and Inferior Schools —
Society of Friends of Science at Warsaw.

Dear Sib,
In my last, I have, in a desultory manner, ad-
Terted to the principal branches of learning in
Poland, and touched on some celebrated names to
whom they were chiefly indebted for their im-
provement and their lustre. The books which a
people reads, and the languages which it culti-
L Tates, are the prime elements of its thought, or, at
I least, the chief impulses to the exercise of tlie
I mental faculties. This consideration induced me
I to trace historically the languages to which the
I Poles attached themselves ; and from this attach-
ment I grounded my inference respectingthe general
[ tone of Polish literature, and its probable tendency
in future. In order more fully to illustrate tlie
observations already made, and to fill up the
chasms which I may have left, I shall now give

INSTITUTIONS FOR EDUCATION. ISl

a short sketch of the history of our literary insti-
tutions, and of their internal regulations. From
this you will form an idea of the means employed. ,
for promoting learning in Poland in former ages,
as well as at the present time.

In Poland, as in other countries, the earliest
establishments for education were the convents,
and the professors were ecclesiastics. Learning
at tliat time was not generally diffused ; it was
the exclusive profession of the clergy, who kept it
to themselves with an ai'istocratic grasp ; the only
medium by which any portion of it reached the
bulk of the people, was by the instruction given
at church, and advices in temporal affairs.

The first religious order in Poland was that of
the- Benedictines in Tyniec, and the Cistertians in
Miechow. One convent of the former order was
founded on Mount Bald^ formerly the site of a
temple consecrated to the worship of a heathen
Deity. This convent is still in existence, and on-
ly a few friars inhabit its venerable walls. They

* This Mountain, calleil in Polish Lysa Cora, is still sup-
posed to be the resort of witches ; and is the same in Poland
as Blocksberg in Germany. Mountains of tiieaame appella-
tion exist in great numbers throughout Poland and Hussia.
They were anciently, like the Helgafela amongst the Scan-
dmavians, consecrated to the purposes of the Sclavoniaa
idol-worship. Their names often occur in ancient songa
■ad traditiooa. , . ^^

LETTERS ON POLAND.

seem to be the unperishing guardians of a spot
which for ages immemorial has been hallowed to
religion.

Education was at that time entirely monastic,
and directed conformably to the views and spirit
, tt£ the clergy. No Jayman had yet made a public
jirofession of learning. Poland, as well as the
■jiest of Europe, was then, like ancient Egypt, di-
vided into the caste of the sword and that of books.
AH the religious orders that subsequently appear-
I -«d pursued the old beaten path of their predeces-
sors, and opposed ail reform as dangerous and un-
I Jhallowed innovation. In pursuing tiieir duties,
they acted mechanically, ratlier than with an expan-
I'lBJOD of mind ; consequently, they left behind them
] (HO masterpieces of genius as ornaments of their
I .activity. All the literaiy works that these ages
•^an boast of are some meagre chronicles, and im-
perfect attempts at legislation. Yet, though reli-
.gion conveyed but little intellectual cultivation, it
irannot be denied to have been considerably bene-
ficial to mankind, by afrordmg{K]litical protection.
An anathema of tlie churcli was a tliunderbolt to
those who became guilty of injustice or oppres-
Bion, and whose exalted station placed them be-
yond tlie reach of any human law. Where excom-
jjnuuicatious wrought in full force, the people were
>«arlier unchained from oppressive bondage ; where
Lf their stroke was not dreaded, tliey were exposed

INSTITUTIONS FOtt EDUCATION-

to endure wrongs unredressed, and remained longer
in fetters. This is strikingly exemplified in the
difference between the nations which professed
the Roman religion and those who belonged to
the Greek church.

Poland began to emerge from her rude state of
political and moral existence at the end of the
fourteenth centiiry ; when, after a period of in-
cessant wars, the efforts of the nation were at last
crowned with peace, — when laws calculated to
promote the welfare of the people were enacted
by Casimir the Great, and the erection of a imi-
versity in Cracow was projected to accelerate ci-
vilization. After that period science came to
be more varied, and more generally diffused. It
was no longer partial, as it was \rhen cultivated
by the clergy alone, whose sole object was to pro-
mote a knowledge of the doctrines of Revelation.
It now became divided into different branches,
and spread its ample and benignant shade over all
classes of the people. The teachers were no
longer ecclesiastics, hut learned laymen, experi-
enced in the affairs of the world, and versed in
the mysteries of nature. This improved mode of
cultivating the sciences soon produced Gregory
of Sanok, an open antagonist of the scholastic
philosophy, who proposed the plan of beginning
the education of youth by making them acqnaint-
ed with poets and orators, — a Iiold scheme, but

124

LETTERS ON POLAND.

perhaps not void of plausibility. At that period
appeared Rey of Na^owic, wlio brought down
philosophy from its high presumptuous elevation
to homely life, enforced the practice of domestic
virtues, and was the first who philosophized in
his native tongue, — Janicki, distinguished in La-
tin poetry, who was created poet laui'eate by the
Pope long before Casimir Sarbiewski, and died a
premature death iu the 28th year of his age, —
John Kochanowski, who chaunted liis mellow
notes to the Polish lyre, while his bi-others trans-
lated Virgil and Tasso, at a time when but few
nations were acquainted with these masterpieces
through the medium of translations. In short,
there existed no branch of liberal and useful
knowledge which was not, at tliat period, planted
and firmly rooted in the Pohsh soil.

I cannot give you a more satisfactory idea of
the changes produced at that period than by re-
ferring your attention to the Univei*sity of Cra-
cow, which is the source from whence they origi-
nated. The histoiy of this university is also the
history of the learning of Poland.* It has am-
ply justified the high title it beai's in ancient re-
cords, of the " Alma Mater et N^ut7-ix PolonO'
rum." It was richly endowed by the liberality of
Polish monarchs, and donations of private in-

* See Appendix, Mote 7-

U:^IVERS1TV OF CRACOW. 125

divitUials, and enjoyed great privileges. In con-
sequence of the bull of Pope Urban V., whereby
it was confirmed, and of its own eminence as a
seat of learning, it occupied an equal rank with
the other European universities. At its first esta-
blishment it had no chair of Divinity ; this branch
' the Popes were not easily induced to grant, with-
out due consideration, to the more remote miiver-
sities. The political views of the Vatican made
them wish the Catholic clergy to be educated in
Italian or French universities, under their imme-
diate superintendence, to obviate every tendency
to schism. But at length even this important
privilege was conferred on the university by Pope
Boniface IX., in 1397. This grant, however,
seems rather to have been the result of compul-
sion than of good will. The imperious circum-
stances were two : The recent conversion of the
Lithuanians to Christianity, and the want of
preachers to address the Neophytes in their na-
tive tongue, before whom Vladislaus Jagello was
often seen uniting the office of an apostle to that
of the monarch, in personally instructing them in
the creed of the new faith ; and, lastly. The fear
that the religious tenets of WicklifF might, by
gaining ground in Bohemia, endanger the ortho-
dox Catholicism in Poland.

The fundamental laws of the university, as you
will soon obserye. were in such a spirit as to pro-

196

LETTERS ON POLAND.

mote, in the most favourable manner, the progrt'ss
of knowledge, I shall give you a few short spe-
cimens of the most characteristic, as they are re-
corded in the History of the University of Cra-
cow, written by Mr Soltykowicz in 1810. Some
of its statutes included privileges so advantage-
ous, that, at a later period, several of its regula-
tions have been adopted in more modem universi-
ties in Poland and Rnssia, and now constitute a
part of their code of regulations.

The University of Cracow had this in common
with all the other universities of Europe, that each
faculty had the right of conferring on its students
the degrees of Batchelors, Magistri, and Uoctores,
without requiring superior sanction. The same
proceeding is still continued in the modern univer-
sities ; the only difference is, that the title of Bac-
calaureate is now exchanged for the Candidature.
The ancient University of Cracow had under its
superintendence all the schools throughout the
country. A similar regulation is still retained in
Poland and Russia, the inferior schools being in
both countries dependent on tlie imiversities. The
schools which were founded by the university, and
supphed by it with teachers, were called its Co-
lo?ii(e, in like manner as they are now called Gym-
nasia, and District Schools. New professors were
elected by a plurality of votes of the professors
' themselves, and the elected candidate was then

UNIVERSITY or CRACOW.

137

presented to the king for his royal confirmation.
The same custom is still followed in all the Polish
and Russian universities, with this difiercnce,
however, that the elected professors are now con-
firmed, not by the monarch himself, but by the
Minister of State charged with tlie duty of su-
perintending the public instruction and rehgion,
who, in Russia, is at present Prince Galiczyn, and
in Poland, Grabowski.

All the buildings belonging to the University of
Cracow were exempt from taxes and every other
burden. Tlie auditories, like the temples among
the Greeks, were held sacred and inviolable : A
criminal who took refuge there was in safety, and
could not be apprehended without the consent of
the rector. All tlie graduated students were, in
consequence of tlieir degree, esteemed noblemen,
quoad personam ; and after twenty years, either of
civil or military service, their noble rank became
hereditaiy. On this point the same regulation has
been adopted both in Poland and in Russia; — ■
a measure which gives great encouragement to
science, and midermines the empty pride of birth
devoid of merit. The authority of the university
was not limited to students enroUed in its alburn^
whether natives or foreigners ; but extended also
over medical professors throughout the country,
apotliecaries, printers, bookbinders, painters, and
even their apprentices. All these persons were

128

LETTEKS ON POLAND.

entirely subject to the rector'8 jurisdiction. He
was invested with the power of exacting their oath
of allegiance ; without his warrant none of them
could legally be arrested or punished. In civil
' cases, and even in some criminal cases of less im-
portance, the rector's decision was irrevocable.
' The power of his sentence extended so far as to
' banish the delinquent from the town, and prohi-
' bit the inhabitants from receiving him into their
I bouses, or countenancing him in society. He could
•-■denounce the anathema of the church against those
' who withheld the assessment due to the university,
' or in any way injured its revenue. The respect
* paid to the rector was in proportion to the extra-
■* ordinary power with which he was invested.
■ There are instances wlien (upon public occasions)
he occupied the next place to the royal family, in
like manner as the rector of the Sorbonne held pre-
cedence over the peers of France. The students,
jnoreover, enjoyed this privilege that, in travelling
' lo or Jroni CracoM', they paid no toll for roads or
;s. In order to secm'e to the imiversity the
iiill enjoyment of these important prerogatives,
four Couservatores Prm/egiorum were nominated
jn 1429, whose office it was to guard them against
^ any arbitrary encroachment.

It cannot be denied, that the particulars now

P enumerated, although I am far from considering

iLem esseiitial, since they refer only to external

UNIVEESITV or CRACOW. 129

forms, are sufficient proofs of the great regard
paid in Poland to every thing that concerned learn-
ing, — of the care taken to remove every thing in-
jurious to it, — and of the expedients contrived for
promoting its progress. Under such favourable
circumstances, it is no wonder that the University
of Cracow became the nursery of so many enlight-
ened men, some of whom became rectors, and even
professors in foreigu universities, and kept up a li-
terary correspondence with tlie most learned men
in Europe, — with Erasmus of Rotterdam, — with
Luther — with Melanchthoa — with Justus Lipsius,
and others. Its renown attracted students from
all quarters, from Bohemia, Himgaiy, Germany,
and Sweden.* There existed Hungarian, Ger-
man, and Swedish Bursaries. The Polish Bur-
saries, the number of which was great, and
some large enough to provide for fifty students,
&olitated the acquisition of knowledge even to
btudents from the lower classes. The number of
the students must have been considerable, since at
one time there were upwards of 3000 scholars in
those inferior sehools in Cracow which depended
on the University, and where the topics of instruc-
tion were confined to grammar, rhetoric, poetics,
and dialectics.

At that time the zeal for learning seems to have

* See Appendix, Note 8.

130 LETTERS ON POLAND.

been general in Poland, and literary accoinplish-
menta held In great honour. We find the highest
offices in the kingdom occupied by learned men,
chiefly graduates. Nicolas of Tenczyn, Grand
Hetmau, which is the highest military office in
the kingdom, was a graduated Doctor of Philoso-
phy in 1468. Peter lanicki, a graduated bache-
lor in 1490, was afterwards made Chancellor of
Poland, which is the highest civil dignity. In
ISO.I, John Choinski, Vice-ChanceUor ; and in
1518, John Osiecki, Chancellor, were both gra-
duated bachelors. Zbigniew Olesnicki was gra-
duated A. M. and D. Ph. so early as the year 1406,
subsequently Bishop of Cracow, and a Cardinal.
Even the sons of reigning princes were ambitious
of obtaining learned degrees. In 1417, Alexan-
der, the son of Zemowit Duke of Masovia, thought
it not beneath his high birth to be graduated in
the University, and in 1432, even accepted of the
rectorate. After all that has now been adverted
to, I need not multiply instances by enumerating
tiie diflferent dignitaries of the chm-ch, senators,
I and many of the equestrian order, who were gra-
I duated iu an institution which, being the ac-
Imowleged fountain of all polite learning, reflected
1 briUiant lustre on the individual distinguished
by it.* The acquisition of tliese degrees was

■ Itaque si atiquid elegantioris literaturie in aliquo con-
^t^iciuiit, Cracovue eum vulgo studuisse aiuntj nee quemquam

UNIVERSITY OF CRACOW.

131

Open to men of the lowest rank ; they were the
only paths for them to distinction, and to the
highest offices in the kingdom. In this manner,
Stanislaus Hosius, a graduated bachelor in 1521,
advanced to the dignity of a Bishop of Warmia,
and became a Cardinal. After him, Martin Cro-
mer, the historian, in consequence of the same de-
gree, obtained, in 1530, the same dignity of Bishop
in Warmia; and inlikemanner a great many others
. of low birth were variously promoted to civil and
military offices. Under the Jesuits, graduation
fell into disi^e ; they were too intent upon in-
trigue to require from their students an accurate
and complete course of studies. The practice, how-
ever, has been revived under the present organi-
zation of the universities, particularly those in
Russia. Degrees are there the means by which
persons of obscure birth can attain to distinc-
tion, and even to the rank of nobility. The
nobles themselves are ambitious of acquiring de-
grees, as they pave the speediest way to honoura-
ble employments in the country, which are not al-
ways conferred upon mere birth. This is, indeed,
an artificial incitement to learning, and rather
seems at first to gratify vanity than to cherish

solidam aliquam gapientiam habere pertendunt qui riinquam
Acadcmiam Cracoviensem viderit. — fizovius in Propagino
Hiac, C. xiii, p. 94.

132

I.ETTERS ON POLAND.

a pure love of knowledge. Regulations of this
kind cannot, however, fail to be of great advan-
I iage in a country which has been left beliind in
t'jeivilization, and which has the more need to rise
•'proportionally in moral strength, in order to sup-
wrt its colossal structure, when elevated by rapid
rides towards political importance.
At the time when the University of Cracow
Viras on the decline, occasioned by domestic trou-
bles and the forfeiture of its funds and privileges,
the learned institutions of the Jesuits began to
flourish, and interfere, by rivalship, still farther
with the welfare of that ancient institution. The
principal colleges of the Jesuits were in Posnania,
Thorn, Leopol, Polock, Witebsk, They had be-
tides a university in Wiliia. The epoch of their
iscendancy formed a period of about SOO years,
from the end of the sixteenth century till to-
wards the end of the eighteenth, when Pope
Clement XIV., in concert with all the courts of
I £urope, abolished their order over the whole of
£urope.

The epoch of their hierarchy affords the saddest
aspect of learning and taste in Poland. Every
branch of science was either neglected or deterio-
rated. By their artful machinations, the Univer-
sity of Cracow degenerated into a mere school of
divinity. The nation soon became aware of the
evil consequences of a monastic education. Some

REFORM OF EDUCATION 133

enlightened nobles found themselves compelled to
entrust the education of their cliildren to foreign-
ers superior in qualifications to their own coim-
trymen, and their example was speedily followed
hy others, as a matter of fashion, where there was
not the same power of discrimination in the choice
of teachers, Poland, consequently, from one evil
fell into a greater, and became the resort of fo-
reign adventurers, both male and female, who,
without possessing the knowledge necessary for
instruction, imposed upon the credulity of the ig-
norant, and without sound principles, corrupted
the morals of the people, blighting them in their
very bud and developement. This evil arrived at
its acme under Augustus III., and began to de-
cline tinder the reign of Stanislaus Poniatowski,
when the king and the better disposed part of the
people united their efforts to oppose the further
progress of these inveterate evils.

Never was reform more necessary than at that
period, and never was the accomplishment of any
reform forwarded by circumstances so favourable.
The Jesuits, not satisfied with exerting their
power over the consciences of men, extended it
even over their earthly possessions ; and in the
progress of time, by employing the various engines
of exaction the church put them in possession of,
accumulated immense riches. Territories, as well
as the valuable moveables, were heaped upon them

1S4

I.ETTEB8 ON POLAND.

by the liberality of the Polish monarch, and by
. the religious devotion of wealthy iadividuals.
I These donations were conferred on their convents
irredeemably. The descendants of the donatoi*8,
after the expulsion of that order, had no legitimate
[ light to reclaim them. Accordingly, the govern-
[ Stent was put at once in possession of their large
L property, and' could have disposed of it at its own
1 pleasure, as Joseph II, has done in Austria, and
I other nionarchs in their respective countries, who
thereby arbitrarily enriched theii- own finances.
But the Polish government was too conscientious
to follow examples so arbitraiy, by making an il-
■ legitimate appropriation of estates so acquired ;
' it respected the primitive purposes intended by
the Collators, which were in their nature reli-
gious and moral. The Jesuits in Poland had oc-
cupied a double station, one in religion, the other
in education. After they were discarded from
I 'both these offices, the Poles assigned the whole
of their funds to the purpose of education, and
'made tliem a common good, iu which the whole
> nation was at liberty to sliare.

From this praise-worthy destination of the for-
feited estates, there resulted a jjecuUar organiza-
rtion of the literary establishments in Poland, which
3 without example. Out of these rich funds the
} government pays the yearly allowance to all the
professors in the universities, as well as in the

REFORM OF EDUCATION.

gymnasia and high-schools ; and instruction is giv-
en gratuitoualy to all without exception, and with-
out any respect to their religious persuasion ; even
Tartars and Jews may, if they choose, equally j
participate in this national benefit. In conse- 1
quence of this regulation, there is no" country in (
Europe where learning is less monopolized by the
rich than Poland ; and nowhere have the poor so
many advantages for acquiring knowledge and re- i
spectabihty by the cultivation of their talents. |

For this liberal and beueficial arrangement of
the system of education, which commences a new
era so glorious in the literature and civilJKa-
tion of Poland, the Poles are indebted to the pa-
triotic zeal and efforts of the Count Cbreptowicz
and of Konarski. The first moved this destination
of the funds which bad belonged to the Jesuits,
and caiTied it through in tJie Diet in 1775 ; the
other planned the foundation of the intended in-
stitutiona, and directed the reform of education io
all its literary and scientific branches. Eacli of
them has, a claim to the gratitude of the Poles,
and of future generations. Count Chreptowicz,
in particular, is entitled to his share, as he has
saved for hberal purposes what would otherwise
have become the prey of private avarice. The re-
form of education is one of the last bright actions
of the Poles before their dismemberment, and lays
no less a claim to oui' respect than their admirable

136

LETTERS ON POLAND.

constitution of the 3d May 1791: It even sur-
passes the latter in its beneficial results. The dis-
memberment of theii" country has paralyzed the
advantages which their constitution was calculat-
ed to effect ; but, from the reform of education
they derive, and will continue to derive, the great-
est benefits ; and future generations will long ve-
nerate the memory of their patriotic ancestors,
whose wisdom procured them the enjoyment of
such invaluable blessings.

In the first instance, the reform was begun in the
Universities of Cracow and Wilna. Immediately
new schools were established, the chief of which
are, the Military School, Collegium Nobilium, and
the Lyceimi in Warsaw, besides many gymnasia
and high-schools in different provincial towns.
Tlie professors, who had been formerly mostly of
the clerical order, were gradually removed, and the
laity intrusted with the office of instruction. Se-
minaries were founded at the universities for the
express purpose of educating able teachers to fill
the vacant places. These useful establishments
are still in existence. In the want of duly quali-
fied natives the chairs were supplied with foreign-
ers, and the liberal rewards which were offered at-
tracted learned men from all countries and nations.
The bberality of the government to the learned
extended still farther than their annual allowance.
After having occupied their respective stations of

UNIVERSITIES AND SCHOOLS.

137

public employment a certain number of years,
annuities were assigned them for life, as to put
their declining years beyond the reach of care and
want. In Wilna, and in all the Polish provinces
belonging to Russia, twenty-five years of pubhc
service are required to establish a claim to this
recompense, which is called Emeritura, and
amounts to the full allowaace which the incum-
bent had received during the last year of his public
employment. In case that the health of the indi-
vidual is impaired during his service, the emeri-
tura is granted to him even before the expiration
of the requisite term. In case of his death, his
widow and children are entitled to a certain por-
tion of this yeaily income.

Having thus considered the literary institutions,
and their advantageous points as they have ap^
peared in Poland through succeeding centuries,
I shall, in order to complete my sketch, add some
details in illustration of the present condition of
our universities and schools.

The University of Cracow, since its decline, has
never been able to rise to its pristine eminence.
It struggled long with the hostile attacks directed
against it by the Jesuits ; it suffered much in the
Swedish wars and domestic troubles; audstiUmore
from the hands of the Austrians after the dis-
laembermeut of Poland. Austria, having not a

LETTEBS O;

^^€f^:

natural, but only an artificial Teutonic spirit, (for
most of the nations composing her dominions are
not of Germanic extraction,) pursues, nevertheless,
the strange and difficult pohcy peculiar to her ob-
stinate goveriuneut, of Giermanizing all the inha-
w ,, ; , bitants subjected to her sceptre. As soon as Cra-
u. 4.L4.t'y-:'''^tow became Austrian, the university was peopled
. '^■''■''-*^'-^' with a colony of Grerman professore. The chief
object at which they aimed was to propagate every
thing German, and thereby to second the vieM's of
the government of which they were the emisaai-ies.
The Poles, who had already but too much reason
to be irritated against the Austrian government,
were, by these illiberal proceedings, for ever alien-
ated from the imiversity. This untoward circum-
stance contributed to accelerate its decay. After
the Congress of Vienna, Cracow became, in fact,
a free town, and tlie university parted with her
German professors ; room was thus given to the
natives for displaying more of the national spirit
But, after its previous losses, it is deprived of the
fostering means necessary to its revival. This
imiversity, tlien, in its present state, exhibits the
aspect of the decayed ruins of some ancient mag-
nificent building, being, in fact, a mere shadow of
its former splendour. John Snladecki, who was
educated at this university, specifies, in his " Ac-
count" of it, many of its regiUationa, which bear

TTNITEHSITIES AND SCHOOLS. 199

a marked resemblance to those of the University
of Oxford. *

Among the Polish universities that of Wihia is
the best regulated ; and the annual emoluments of
the professors are the most considerable. One
Lyceum at Krzemieniec, and eight gymnasia,
namely, those of Wilna, Groduo, Mohilew, Wi-
tebsk, Minsk, Wimiica,Zytomir, and Bialystok, are
placed under its superintendence ; besides a great
many high-schools, called Powiatowe. The pro-
fessors and teachers, paid by government in 1820,
amounted to 433. The seminary for educating
the clergy, at Wilna, has 15,000 silver roubles
per annum, destiued to its own uses, f

" The University of Cracow has three professors of some
eminence, Bandkie, autlior of an escelient History of Poland,
in two volumes ; Slotwinski, a lawyer ; and Soltykiewicz,
author of the History of the University of Cracow.

t The curator of this university is the Prince Adam Caar-
toryaki, palatine. The rector is Twardowski. Its princi-
pal professors, who have also distinguished tlicmselves by
various literary productions, are, John Sniadecki, in Astro-
nomy; Dr Andrew Sniadecki, his brother, in Chemistry.
His excellent book on " Animal Organization," in two vo-
lumes, has been translated into German, Groddeck, one of
the first philologists in Europe, author of several works on
Greek and Latin literature; Dr Frank, and Becu, celebrat-
ed in Medicine ; Capelli, in Law ; Golanski, and Borowski,
in the Belles Lettres ; Lelewel and Onacewicz, in History ;
Jun^j is Botfny, Thig u»ivei;eity has been lately de<

LETTEBS ON POLAND.

The University of Warsaw is but of recent
date ; it was founded by the Emperor Alexander
in the first year of his reign in his new kingdom.
His majesty wished that his footsteps into this
country should be thus rendered signally glorious
iu the memory of his new subjects. This imiver-
sity is composed of five faculties or divisions : 1,
Divimty ; 2. Law and Administration ; 3. Medi-
cine; 4, Mathematics and Physical Science; and, 5.
Literature and the Fine Arts. In 1831 there were
no fewer than 43 professors and teachers attach-
ed to it, and paid by the govermnent. For its
support a yeai-ly sum of 352,953 Polish florins is
assigned. The simi total of its yearly revenue is
4,757,4-71 Polish florins, from which it has to
supply allowances to schools depending upon it,
and for other purposes, tending to promote, in
various ways, literary knowledge over the whole
country. *

privedof the servicea of Mr Saunders, an Englishman, whose
impaired health obliged him to resign hia chair. He retir-
ed to Florence, where he now resides, eminent as an artist
and man of letters. He was the Director of the Inrtitution
for Engraving at Wilna. and lectured on the History of the
Fine Arts, and on English Literature.

* The most eminent professors, -who also sliine conspicu-
ous as authors, are, Bendkowski, in Universal and Polish
History ; Bandkie, in Law ; Skrodzki, In Physical Sciences ;
Ciampi, in Latin. The last it a natiTe of Italy, and famous

UNIVERSITIES AND SCHOOLS.

141

There is a fourth university in Poland, at Leo-
po], in Austrian Galicia ; but this, although si-
tuated in the heart of a Polish province, and
among Polish inhabitants, cannot, with propriety,
be called a Polish institution. All its professors
are Germans, and the lectures are given in the
German and Latin languages. The same incon-
venience of a foreign language extends to the infe-
rior schools in Galicia. The principal objects of
study in the schools of that province are, Latin,
German, and the " Everlasting Catechism," with
a httle mathematics, provided the scholars are
able to understand the foreign jargon of their pe-
dagogues.

Austria is the only European country where it
might be said that little has been done for the in-
terests of education; and her government appears
decidedly averse to all improvement in this parti-
cular. Civilization has in that country become
stationary or retrograde, while the nortli of Ger-
many makes rapid advances. Nothing is allowed
to be printed without undergoing the strictest
censure ; and the slightest liberal idea tending to
innovation exposes both the author and tlie cen-
sor to prosecution. There is a strict prohibition

for hia various philological works : Jacobi, in Greek ; Osin-
ski, in Polish Literature. Linde, Rector of the Lyceum, is
author of various historical researches on the Polish imd
Sdavonian Antiq^uitiea. "^ .,_■»■■'-"- ■ ■ j._^._-,..

143 LETTERS ON POLAND.

against the importation of foreign booka, and
against the natives sending their children to fo-
reign universities, to give them an education more
corresponding to the progress of civilization.
Lately, when the Jesuits were expelled from Rus-
sia on account of the blighting influence which
they exercised upon civilization, the Austrians re-
ceived these exiles with open arms. At first they
settled them at Tarnopol, where they established
their own gymnasium, and from thence spread
themselves and their principles all over Galicia.
The well-known ixiliey of this order has ever been
to check the progressive developement of mind,
and to propagate in its stead the gross mysticism
of superstition, which so darkly enveloped Europe
for ages preceding the Reformation. The pre-
sent influence of the Jesuits in Galicia will pro-
bably be followed with the most pernicious conse-
quences ; and that province, which, in the fifteenth
and sixteenth centuries, was the seat of learning,
and produced more illustrious men than any
other in Poland, will undoubtedly sink from the
high rank it formerly held in the republic of let-
ters into a state of comparative obscurity. In
short, the system of education in that province is
such, that no advantageous results can be looked
for.

The organization of the Polish gymnasia is
- nearly the same as that of the German, particu-

USITEKSITIES AND SCHOOLS. 143

larly of those in Pniesia : yet the course of studies
in Poland ia more compreheosive. Some branches
of knowledge, which, in Germany, form the ob-
ject of study in the universities, enter into the
prospectus of lessons of the Polish Gymnasia ; for
example, the Law of Nature and Nations, {Jus
Nature et Gentium,) Political Economy, Natural
Philosophy, along with its different branches,
Botany and Zoology. The Mathematics, in par-
ticular, are cultivated to a high degree ; and a
scholar iu a Gymnasium is made tolerably well
acquainted with geometry, botli theoretical and
practical, with trigonometiy, the geometry of so-
lids, and algebra. The Germans themselves, on
visiting the schools in Poland, acknowledged the
superiority of her schools in Mathematics over
theirs,* Other objects of study in these Gymnasia
are, History, Geography, and Drawing. The lan-
guages taught are, Greek, Lacin, French, and
Grerman ; and in the Polish provinces belonging
to Russia, the Russian also. With the elements
of these studies the scholar must be tolerably well
acquainted, and is bound to produce certificates of
his proficiency before he can be admitted to attend
the course of study in the university.

• Gedike, a well-known eminent scholar in Germany, in
his Report of the Polish Schools, drawn up at the request

of the Prussian Government.

144

LETTERS ON POLANOJ.

Every thing in Poland is well calculated to pro-
inote learning among the higher classes. Its pro-
gress is in the most promising way ; its future re-
sults more than certain. The lower classes, un-
fortunately, do not enjoy the advantage of being
proportionally benefited by the learning requisite
to their social condition. The parish schools are
not sufficient to improve them in this respect ;
and the village schools, upon which their hopes
chiefly rest, are not numerous. The extension of
civilization will never be general imless these are
multiplied.

In addition to these literary establishments, I
may, finally, mention an institution of another
iiatiu-e, but which is closely connected with the
fonner, namely, T/ie Society of Friends of Science
at Warsaw. Its origin might be referred to the
reign of Stanislaus Poniatowski, when that excel-
lent but ill-fated monarch soothed the misfortunes
of his life with the healing halm of literary pas-
1 time, destining every Thm'sday evening to social
, conversation with men of learning. After the
partition of Poland, when the name of that coun-
try was to be for ever obliterated, the same lite-
rati who were thus accustomed to hold these lite-
rary meetings with the king, actuated by patriotic
I feelings, iinited themselves into a society, for the
object of rescuing from oblivion whatever relatetl
to the history and literature of the Pohsh nation.

UNIVERSITIES AND SCHOOLS.

145

The membera have since exerted their powers in
different departments of learning: and many li-
terary productions originated, tliat have excited
a deep and general interest over the nation. The
Transactions of this Society are published un-
der the title of Annals, and are now grown vo-
luminous. The most active members of this so-
ciety are. Count Ossolinski, Niemcewicz, John
Sniadecki, and Linde^ who might also be consider-
ed the iirst literary characters in Poland, at least
their numerous and excellent works would seem
to entitle them to that distinction.

Such is a general view of the literary institu-
tions formed in Poland from the dawn of Christi-
anity on to the present day. You have thus
seen how far the liberality of the Polish monarchs
extended in endowing them ; and how far the
whole nation took an active interest in their be-
half. Kven during the latest period, when the
nation was in the most distressed circumstances,
the Poles did not hesitate to sacrifice to the pro-
motion of science the means which might perhaps
have rescued their coimtry, or, at least, prevent-
ed for a time its entire dissolution. Under Stan-
islaus Poniatowski, the last King of Poland, began
a new glorious era of Polish literature. During
Poland's non-existence, literature was cherished
under the private patronage of the Princes Czar-
toryekis, who, being the scions of the Jagelloniaii

146 LETTERS ON POLAND.

line^ watched carefully over the vestal jflame kind-
led by their royal ancestors. The period of Na-
poleon's conquest was short and transient — ^like
the glare of a meteor, it shone but for a moment,
producing only the coruscation of arms — ^it awak-
ened enthusiasm and hope, but had little or no ef-
fect on literature. Alexander's wise and peaceful
reign is the dawn of the brightest prospects, and
spreads its illuminating beams over the horizon of
a hopeful futurity.

147

LETTER VI.

Niemcewicz's Historical Songs — The Oldest Monuments of the
Polish Language — The Golden Era of the Polish Literature
^^Tts Authors — Era of its Dedine — Retrospect and Art of
Printing.

•

Dear Sir,
When ideas refuse to come we hunt for them.
Such was my case — I was at a loss what to write
to you. I went then to see a small collection of
books relating to Poland, deposited, last year, in
the Library of the Writers to the Signet, by Count
Zamoyski, my countr3nman. This view of some
folios, quartos, octavos, and duodecimos, in the
Polish, Latin, French, and Grerman languages,
gave me a delight equal to that of an antiquary
at the sight of some old black-letter books, or some
broken fragments of an Etruscan vase. My mind
awoke from its lethargy, and my thoughts expand-
ed. In one instant I embraced centuries of in-
tellectual wealth. I have now got rich in matter
and in varied associations — richer than I require
for a single letter. ^ Out of this sudden and unex-
pected treasure, I shall select what I think chiefly

148

LETTERS ON POLAND.

pertaius to the literature of the Polish language ;
or, if you please, I shall give a cursory review of
a Polish library.

The first book which I saw in the above col-
lection, and one with which I have always been
much delighted, was the Historical Songs of
Nienicewicz. It is a book to which I do not know
any pai-allel, and which is peculiar to the Polish
literature. It was occasioned by the late situation
of Poland ; and, as no nation has ever been in such
circumstances as that country, none of course
could possess a similar literary production. The
only nation somewhat resembhng Poland in its
fortunes, which at one time was agitated by simi-
lar patriotic feelings, though of inferior intensity,
is the Scottish. Both nations cherish the memo-
ry of those kings who once swayed the national
sceptre, and never pronounce but with reverence
the names of the heroes who shed their blood for
liberty and their country's glory. The songs,
Scots wha hae wV Wallace hied, iu Scotland, and
Poland is not lost as long as we live, in Poland,
excite the same \varm emotions, and the same en-
thusiastic feelings. The boon, when lost, became
doubly dear to both nations. The Poles have
reason, however, to brood over its loss with far
more mournful recollections than the Scots. The
wrongs sustained by the Poles were heavier, as
hey rendered them strangers in their own coun-

HISTOniCAL SONGS.

149

try.' Vistula's streams were the waters of Baby-
lon to the daughters of Sarmatia.

The poets watched over the sensitive bosoms of
their nation, and carefully fostered the burning
flame of patriotism. Mr Nieracewicz, known in
Poland no lees by his patriotic zeal as a citizen
than his excellence as a poet, partly to gratify the
general feeling of his nation, partly to give vent
to his own fervour, wrote the History of Poland
in lyric poetry. The book is now in every body's
hand, and its contents engraved on every heart.
It is written with such amenity, that it has he-
come a book of education ; and in Poland you
may frequently hear children recite, in their sil-
ver voices, the rhapsodies of Polish kings and Po-
lish warriors : as, for instance. " The Angel's
Visit to the Piast" — " The Sorrows of Queen He-
lena and her Royal Sou" — " The Chivalrous 2a-
wisza"' — " Glinski the traitor," &l'. No fitter
contrivance has ever appeared for effectually ex-
tending the knowledge of history — for planting pa-
triotic virtues in the innocent bosoms of the rising
generation — and for making their love to their na-
tive land imperishable. These songs are set to
music, and illustrated with plates, in order to reit-
der the historical events visible, and to impress
them indelibly on the youthful memory.

The music to which the songs are set is by
different composers. That of the " Ballad of

I,ETTER8 ON POLAND.

Zolkiewski," composed by a lady, is the most na-
tional, and its modulation is characterized by a
heart-felt majestic simplicity. On the whole, it
' 18 remarkable, that the music composed by the
. ladies is by far the finest, and the ballads set to
that music have become the most popular. I am
at a loss to what to attribute this phenomenon,
(since the superior talents of the male composers
are acknowledged,) whether to the superiority of
the natural or the patriotic feelings of that sex,
or to both together. *

At the head of the Polish ballads, an ancient
Hymn to the Virgin is prefixed. It is from the
close of the tenth century, and is believed to be the
oldest moumneut of the Pohsh language. The
author is supposed to be St Adalbertus, Archbi-
shop of Gneano, the first apostle of Christianity
to the heathen Prussians, This hymn is famous
in the History of Poland. The Poles used to
sing it going to battle — a custom which they de-
rived from their heathen ancestors, and could not
relinquish after their conversion. Thus the man
of nature died in defence of his domestic hearth
with a hymn of his own voice, as the man of so-
ciety dies now at the deafening sound of the driun,

* The Polish ladies who composeil the music are. Prin-
cess of Wirtemberg, born Princess Czartoryska ; Countess
Zamoyska, born Princess Czartoryska ; Mrs Dembowska ;
Misses Bedaylcj Paris^ and Szynioiiowska.

OLDEST REMAINS OF THE LAJJfGUAGE. 151

Casimii* Sarbievi^ki wrote a Latm version of thKt
ancient hymn, with which you are probably ac-
quainted, from the collection of his Lati^ poetry.
It begins with Diva per latas celebrata terras^ <|c.

The second monument of the Polish language,
but of an uncertain age, is the funeral " Coronaeh"
of the heathen Prussians at the bier of their dead
— beginning thus : " O lele ! lele ! Why wouldst
thou die ! Hadst thou nought to eat ? nought to
drink ? Hadst thou not rosy-cheek'd maidens ?"

A great many songs were lost in the lapse of
the dark ages ; fragments of them only are re-
membered by our chroniclers. To such belongs'
the

" O welcome our Lord !
O welcome our beloved I"

with which Cafiimir the monk was saluted by the
people on his return to his paternal throne from
the Abbey of Clugni in France, where he had loing
resided.

The ballad of the unhappy Ludgarda, comme-
morating how she was murdered by the orders of
the King Przemyslaw, her husband, and how eni-»
bracing his knees she entreated him not to kill
her, but allow her to return home to her father,
Duke of Cassubia, though it should be in a single
shirt, was J as Dlugossus records, sung by the peo-
ple in his time, that is, two hundred years after

153 L£TT££6 ON POLAND.

the sad catastrophe had happened ; now, it ie en-
tirely forgotten.

The same chronicler relates, that, on a certaiod
day during the Lent season, he had witnessed thai|
common people binding a bundle of straw or
hemp, dressing it in human clothes, and then
drowning it in a lake or in a river. On this occa-
sion they used to sing.

Death flutters round tlie liedges.

Who ia ibnd of sorrow, &c.
This custom, he conjectures, was in commemora-
tion of the day on which, under Mieczyslaw, who
first embraced Christianity, the idols of the hea-
then deities were broken and drowned.

These specimens may be augmented hy differ-
ent others, written in the course of the fourteenth
and fifteenth centuries. They consist mostly of
remnants of laws, the Church Liturgy, and trans-
lations from holy writ. The first translation of
the Psalms appeared about the second half of the
fourteenth century ; it was made for the Queen
Hedvige, who, by her marriage with JaguUo
Duke of Lithuania, converted him and the whole
of Lithuania to Christianity But I am not in-
clined to detain your attention with these minute
scraps. They are suited to affoi*d entertainment
rather to an antiquary than to a philosophical
mind. Every thing that can gratify tlie lattei-
was written in Latin. The whole period antece-

OLDEST REMAINS OV THE LANGUAGE. 15»

dent to the Reformation was unproductive and
sterile, and the general turn of opinion led men's
minds not to admire any literary productions so
much as those of devotion. '

Omni die
Die MarUe,

Mea laudes anima ;
Ejus festa.
Ejus gesta.

Cole devotissinia.

Casimii", a prince of royal blood, pupil of DIu-
gossuB, is held to be the author of theee lines, the
tenor of which is sufficient to give you the best,
idea of the literary productions, and of the na-
tional tendency of that period of prayers.

Polish vernacular hterature, in all its departs
ments, began to flourish in the course of the six-
teenth century. This was also the age of the in-
troduction of printing and of the Reformation.
At the very outset of its infant career, it appears
under very striking and rather imexpected fea-
tures. The Polish language, which for centuries
seems to have existed in a dormant and torpid
state, appears at once in such correctness, ele-
gance, and richness, as if it had been cultivated *
for many centuries ; and, whilst the foreign lan-
guages of that period are visibly rugged and un-
settled in their grammar, and are now seldom
read, and not easily understood, the ancient Po-

15*

1J£TT£BS &X EOX.«d^I>.

lish is still wortliy of being recommended to the
8tiidy of any one who mshes to write the niodeiii
witli more than usual skill and correctuess.
Hence, I am led to conjecture, that the Poles did
not altogether neglect to cidtivate their own lan-
guage along with the Latin ; and while the Latin
was employed in schooLs aud public transactions,
the Polish must have been the language of do-
mestic life, and of thought in retirement. It
gradually gained new strength in silence, and
only awaited an opportunity to appear in its po-
r lished structure ; and this period was hastened by
^jthe Reformation and tlie art of printing ; the hrst
Ugave excitement for its display in thought, the
other, the means of its promulgation. In this way
alone we discover why tlie beginning of the Polish
language was its maturity, and the cradle of the
Pohsh literature its manhood. This period is
• styled, not without reason, the Augustan or the
V golden age of Polish literature. It is comprised
within the reigns of Sigismimd I. Sigismund Au-
gustus, Stephen Batori, and Sigismund III., an in-
terval of more than one Jumdred years.

Distingiushed autliors belonging to this epoch
i are Rey of Naglowie, John Kochanowski, Klono-
I'wicz, and Simonowicz, They excelled both in
b jKjetry and in prose, and conformably to the cus-
I torn of those ages, wrote not only Pohsh but La-
tin also.

GOI-DEN EUA OF OTERATURF..

153

Rey of Naglomc is tlie earliest emiuent au-
thor ia the Polish laiiguag;e, who claims our at-
tention. His prose writings are mostly of a phi-
losophical cast, touching the most obvioni:; and
common affairs of hmnan life ; they are strictly
moral in their subjects, and chaste in expression,
His language has nothing of the rust of antlqiiityi
it has only its pleasing simplicity, well adapted
for expressing freely his unpretending flow of
ideas. In short, he utters the profoundest concep-
tions in a plain and graceful manner, as if he had
inherited from Xenophon the simplicity and ele-
gance of his style ; not unlike his language, the
subjects of which he treats are in their nature si-
milar to those of the Greek philosopher.

His poetry is of a moral and philosophic cast,
though greatly differing from the simplicity of his
prose writings. It is more than 'sententious — it is
epigrammatic. An effort to produce effect always
obtrudes itself on the mind of his readers. This
augurs not quite so well in favoiu- of his poetical
talents, and he is really superior rather as a prose
writer than as a poet. It canuot, however, be
denied, that he possessed an admirable skill in
compressing his moral sentiments into concise po-
pular language, insomuch as to give them the
pithiness of proverbs. Many adages like his are
still current among the common people in Poland,
It is uncertain whether they were in circulation

136 LETTERS ON POLAND.

before bis tiine, and he onJy embodied them in his
poetry, or ought to be referred to his writings as
the source of their origin. Whatever liis merit
may be as a poet, his merit as a national author
is indisputable. Even his imperfections, the chief
of which is prohxity, and sometimes trespasses
against good taste, when weighed with his better
qiiaJities, are excusable, not wdike those of the
English Chaucer, both being the earliest poets in
their respective countries. To them the remark
of Quintilian may with propriety be applied.
" Interdimi nitor et siunma in excolendis operi-
bus manus, magis videri potest temiJoribus, quam
ipsis auctoribus defuisse."

Our author lived in independent circumstances
— dependent only on the moods of his mind, which
were various. At one time we see him translat-
ing the Psalms to gratify the old and the pious ;
at another giving Models to the Courtiers, to gra-
tify the young and the giddy ; — then tracing the
Sli'uggle betwixt Virtue ami Fortune ; or walk-
ing at ease in his Park of the Nobles. But by
far his principal work is the Mirror of the
Honest Man, wliich is also the mirror of the cus-
toms, opinions, feelings, and occupations of the
Poles of that period at \vhich he wrote. In his
early youth he resided in the house of Tenczyn-
ski, Palatine of Sandomir. For it was formerly
the custom for nobles of rank and influence to

GOLDEN ERA OF LITERATURE.

157

keep numbers of young nobility about them to
render their court more splendid. In the bustle -
of this grandee's court he aci^uired a tolerable
knowledge of the world ; and we see him during
his subsequent life in good graces with a great
part of the Polish nobility, and with the King ^
gismund Augustus. He was not a miser, yet in-
clined to economy, which he also recommended td
others in his writings. By the liberality of tb6
king and of the nobles he became very wealthyi
probably more so than any poet or professed author
in Europe ; for Rey's wealth was sufficient to
found two towns, one of which he called Eetowice,
from hie own name, the other Oksza, from his fa-
mily arms.

Contemporary with Rey was Sehmtimi KlonO'
wks, sometimes called Acernus, which is the
translation of his Polish name, conformably to
the custom of the learned men of that age, who
adopted Greek and Latin translations for their
names. He wrote Latin and Polish poetry ; and,
from hia facility in composing verses, was surnara-
ed the Sarmatian Ovid. The manner in which he
^k declined this high appellation makes him perliaps

^K the more deserving of it. Upon hearing it for the

^B first time bestowed upon him, he is said to have

^r instantly answered with this extemporaneous pen-

H tameter,

^^ Nasonis Suluio patria est, Sulmircia nobis,

^^ft Noique poittastri, Naso poeU fuit.

158

LETTF.RS ON POLAND.

The accidental similarity of Subno and Suliiiircia,
birth-places of the poets, gives additional potut to
this pun. Of him it may be said, that " !ie lisped
in numbers, for the numbers came," His jioems
are not numerous ; and he does not seem to have
been admii'ed so much for their number, as for
the readiness of his poetical effusions. The oc-
currences of common life were the subjects of his
writings. In the management of them he was
not at all times anxious to court the gratt<n de-
centes ; and as soon as an opportunity was offered
for the display of wit, be did not hesitate to sa-
crifice at the shrine of the humorous and satiric
Comus — a pi-opensity not likely to procure him
friends. Even the titles of his poems evince on
what subjects, and in what manner he wrote, as
T/ie Boatman, or a Trip to Dantzig — TJie Purse
of Judas Iscariot, &c. He resided in Lublin,
where he had an office in tJie town-council. The
prodigality of his wife embittered his domestic
happiness, and brought poverty into bis house.
He died at last in a parish hospital. Thus, you
see a brother-poi't of the wealthy Rey, though
equally eminent for poetical talents, did not en-
joy equal smiles of Fortune, but, like Belisarius,
was reduced to the necessity of begging with an
outstretched hand. Date obolum.

We now come to an author who was neither
rich nor [joor, who rejected honours, refused the

COLUEN ERA tJl' l.ITKKATL'Ri:.

159

riclies lavished upon htin, and preferred living in
a happy retirement, unknown to the public but by
hiy contemplations. This was John Kochanowski,
the most distinguished Polish author of that age.
According to the custom of the Poles, he travel-
led in his youth to foreign countries. In Italy, he
became familiarly acquainted with Vida, the Ita-
lian poet, and translated his Poem on Chesti; in
France with the famous Ronsarti, whose poetry,
though generally admired at that time. Ik now
quite neglected by the French, and his language
scarcely understood ; whilst that of our poet is still
relished for its purity and elegance. Even his an-
tiquated expressions have a charm about them, like
the moss and ivy on some majestic building. He
happened to reside at Padua at the same time
with several of his countrymen, afterwards distin-
guished for learning, namely, Lucas Gomicki, Pa-
tricius Nidecki, and John Zamoyski. The last
wae then invested with the dignity of a rector.
In one of his elegies he pleasantly ridiailes the
pedantic and magisterial pomposity of the learned
of that famous academy, in these words,

" Haec inihi barbatum luemini dictare magistrum."

It would be difficult to enmnerate his writings,
and still more difficult to estimate their merits.
In Latin, his three books of elegies are the prin-
cipal ones. His Polish writings consist of origi-

160

I-ETTEBS ON POLAND.

nal pieces and translations. He first made the
Poles acquainted with classical literature by means
of traoslatioiia from ancient authors, aa Homer,
Anacreoii, and Aratus,in translating of whose Phe-
nomena, he had Cicero for his predecessor. From
the Latin he translated a number of the Odes of
Horace. His translation of the Psalms into Po-
lish verse has been equalled by none down to
Karpinski, a living author. He was on all occa-
sions attentive to the elegance and purity of his
language — a caution which prompted liim often to
prefer imitating foreign originals to a dose trans-
lation of them. His translations, of course, have
not perhaps the boldness of the primitive models,
but they have all the ease and amenity of original
composition. His original Polish writings are also
of a vai'ied kind, chiefly suggested by circum-
stances which deeply impressed his mind. The
homage of Alhertus Duke of Prussia, vassal of Po-
land, gave birth to his poem entitled, The Standi
ard. The king's going a hunting suggested to him
The Dryas, or nymph of the woods, coming forth
to welcome the royal hunter to her sylvan do-
mains. Similar other public and private incidents
gave rise to other poetical productions of various
length and character. He sometimes indulged in
ludicrous fictions Of this description is his Sat-
tle of the Beard and Musiachios, to which is ad-
ded, astory of the origin of both. He was the author

GOLDtS ElftA rfP tPfERATURE.

161

of one of the first Polish dramas, the Return of
the Greek Ambassadors, to which I have al-
ready alluded. But his principal imems, aud in
which his soul appears most unfettered and free
in its soaring flight, are the three books of his
Trifles, and of his Threny or Laments. In the'
Trifles he displays the moods of his mind as sug-'
gested by the different occurrences of his life-j
Tbe critics of that time, guided by the classical '
models of taste, did not much approve of that ex-
cursive fi-eedom, and strongly recommended their
own practice of castigation. to which the author
would not submit, stating, that what they consi-
dered as a failing he looked upon as " the very
soul of his poetry." His " Laments" were occasion-
ed by the premature death of his daughter Ur-
szida. Finally, I must remark, that the life of this
poet has been idealized in an excellent drama by
Mr Niemcewicz. The scene in which his soul
overflows, in one of his most beautiful " Laments,"'
is the most affecting ; and that in which the reap-
ers, at the close of harvest, bring him the first
fruits of the produce with song and with music,
and he joins in the rural dance of his peasantry be-
neath the shade of a wide-spreading linden-tree
adorning the middle of his court-yard, exhibits
a most striking picture 'of the primitive Polish
manners, which are too beautiful ever to be dis-
continued. No situation of life could have ap-

lea

LETTERS ON POLAND.

peared with more sublime features upon the stage
thaD that of a pure moral being, who besides was
endowed with mental powere of a rank so super-
eminent.

Besides our author, there were pther three Ko-
chanowskis, two of whom were his brothers.
They deserve to be mentioned, not as original
poets, but aa good translators. George Kochan-
owski translated Virgil's ^neid, (1574,) and liis
version was esteemed the best before the appear-
ance of tliat of Dmochowski. Peter Kochanow-
ski wrote an elegant translation of Tasso's Jeru-
salem, (1618.) Lately some PoHsh specimens
from the same poem were published by Albert
Mier, which are remarkable for an exquisite po-
lish of style. It is to be hoped that this elegant
writer will, ere long, gratify the public with a
translation of the whole poem.

To this epoch belong the three pastoral poets,
Simonowicz, Zimorowicz, and Gawinaki. The
two first were born in Leopol, the last in Cracow,
both places well kno\rn in Poland for the beauty
of their scenery, so admirably adapted to desci'ip-
tive and sentimental poetry, especially of the pas-
toral kind. This species of poetry is closely con-
nected with the surroimdiug scenery, its principal
charms being derived from those of external na-
tm-e. No sylvan reed has ever been tuned in a
place divcRted of the charms of nature. Theocpi-

GOLDEN KBA OF LITEftATURE.

168

tus waB eiUTounded by the mild beauties of Siei-
iian scenery, and Gesner by the grand features of
Switzei'laiid. Our three poete enjoyed similar ad-
vantages. They lived in the bosom of a pictur-
esque swell of hiUs — within sight of the Carpathian
mouutaios. From the sloping hill-sides they saw
villages in the valleys, fruitful fields, spacious mir-
ror-like lakes, meandering rivulets, swelling their
" lingering notes of sylvan music." A landscape
like this afforded them rich imagery, with which,
during their hours of pensive musing, they asso-
ciated their feelings and their fancies.

In this mysterious melting of natui^ with th^
inward workings of the soul, Simonowicz was the
happiest — outstripping all his contemporary poets.
Like the author of the Gentle Shepherd, being of
hunaWe birth, he knew nature, not by incidental
TJsXts, but by daily and familiar converse. Hence
his descriptions appeal' genuine copies from her,
and his feelings ai'e as natural as if they had
been the native effusions of his tender soul. His
other two fellow poets knew natxu"e more from
books than from actual intercourse. Their ideas,
therefore, have not the same correctness, nor the
same easy flow ; and both are, at times, deficient
in elegance of language. AVith Zimorowicz this
is particularly the case. He frankly owns him-
self to be only a humble imitator of Simonowicz,
and, iu his diffidence of succeeding, he declares

LETTERS ON POLAND.

' attempt vain to fbllow a high-fioaring Bel-

lerophon, being himself on foot." Simonowicz

[ betrays, at times, traces of an imitation of the

1 ; but, even then, he does not entirely di-

[ Vest himself of his originality, Justus Lipsius,

rVith whom he maintained a familiar correspond-

I 'Hice, places him by the side of Catullus — a com-

r^^arison to which the truth of his sentimental de-

I 'scriptions seems to have given occasion. His poeti-

l cal talents soon gained him renown and the patron-

f"bge of John Zamoyski, which he enjoyed to the

' dose of his life, (1629.) His style surpasses that

of John Kochanowski in graceful elegance, if not

r'in purity, and, as an author, is entitled to an un-

I disputed pre-eminence over every other prior to the

appearance of the modern poet Krasicki. To en-

r into more particulars regarding him, I shall

^ -quote four lines from his epitaph. It implies

H'lnore truth than might, perhaps, be suspected

rom their emphasis.

Simon Simonides situs est hie, cui bene credas

Congesaisse Charin omnia mella sua,
Veraibus hie rigidaa ducebat montibus ornos,
Et dulcis suadfe fluxerat ore mtdos.

One uncommon merit of the pastorals of Zimo-

rowicz and Gawinski consists in the descriptions

which they contain of ancient customs. Passages of

Pfthat kind are now the more precious, as they are

scome rai-e, furnish useful materials for histo-

TERATDBE. 165

ry, and aflFord much pleasure by their aatiquity
itself; for

" We are drawn to the things departed.

And yearn to woo the relics of hoar Time."

Gawinski wrote likewise a great number of
epigrams, which have all the correctness and
point req^uisite in that species of writing. I shall
here adduce three of them by way of example.
The two first are historical epitaphs, the last is
expressive of the unaffected feelings of a peasant
at the plough.

~ " 7%e Bones o« t7ie Field of Battle.

" Traveller ! at the sight of these bones bleach-
ing in the sun, and uncovered by earth, cease thy
pity ! Ours is a glorious grave : we are shroud-
ed around in virtue, and entombed by the vault of
Heaven."

" The Soldier Slain for his Country.
" For my country I fought : for my country I
fell. The earth covers not my body, but my body
the earth. Witness, O ray land, the love I bear
thee ! I ne'er fled the foe when alive, and still
guard thy frontier when dead."

" The Phughman and the Lark.
" Thou singest, my sweet lark, and I too begin
to plough. The dawn and the twilight find us

166 LETTERS ON POLAND.

both at ofir labour*— me at my plough, thee at thy
Bong. God prosper, sweet songstress. Do thou

* also wish me success, 'Tis for me and for thee

' that I sow." *

Authors distinguished in Pohsh prose belong-
Iting to this period are numerous. The most part
^of them consisted of clergy, both Catholic and
pTrotestant. The most eminent are Seclucian,
►'Wujek, translators of the Bible, Birkowski and
f 6karga, famous preachers. Their language is a
► model of energy and purity, qualities which also

the reader, I subjoio the

• To gratify the curiosity of the reader,
L wiginal us a specimen of the Polish language.

Koaci na pobmowUku.
Gosciu ! CO na tycb palach widzisa kosci sila,
A ziemia ich swoiemi groby nie uczcila,
Nie lituy ^tond, 1 toe grob, dose azlachetny bywa,
Kogo cnota oslania, a niebo przykrywa.

ZivloJci Zolmerza.
'La. oyczyzne w oyczyzrie zabity sie walam,
Nie nmie cieiuia, la ziemie swem cialem przywalam.
Day Bwiadectwo oyczyzno, iako cie tniluie, ' '

Nie zbiegano, 1 po smierci twyoh graillc pilnsie. '-■' '

Oracs i Skamronek.
Juz spiewasz skowroneczku, iuz tez i ia orze,
Obudwu nas w robocie dwoie widzi zone
B6g pciin6z skowroneczku, dodaway nodEieie,
r <!la ciebie ia raz«n i dla aiebie sieie.

GOLSEN era op LlTEBATUilE.

167

adorn the original writings on various subjects
of Goruicki, Sirenius, and Orzechowski.

The number of good works is augmented by
some excellent Polish ehronicles ; for the Ji^te
of the Poles seems always to have been the writ-
ing of history. From his infancy, a Pole had an
opportimity of becoming acquainted with it. Chro-
nicles were often the elementary books from
which the children of the nobility were taught to
read ; for, being Catholics, the reading of the ]
Bible was prohibited to them. The subsequent ,
public life of the Pole led him to appreciate hi&to- j
rical events, and furnished various motives to cob- 1
sign them to writing, the chief of which was to '
gratify the general desire of his fellow citizen^
eager to peruse the pages bright with the ex-
ploits of their ancestors. The most conspicu-
ous chroniclers of this epoch, with the exceptioa
of a great number who wrote in Latin, are Bielski
and Stryikowski. ^Ve may here add NiesiecM,a,
Jesuit, although he properly belongs to the next
period. His Heraldry is an alphabetical chroni-
cle, in whose bulky folio vohmies private afiairs
are combined with public, insomuch, that the an-
nals of the families of nobles become the annals
of the whole country. No work shows in a more
satisfactory manner how far the domestic life of
the Poles was regulated by ambitious schemesi
and none is so well calculated to gratify the vain

168

LETTEHS ON POLAND.

mind, as well as to please the more serious in-
quirer after instructive information.

The peculiar merit of the writers of the goldeu
age is that of establishing the Polish language on
a firm basis, in its grammar as well as in its con-
struction. The modern Polish does not material-
ly differ from the ancient ; the difference consists
only in the superior elegance and regularity of
the modem, which is the fruit of elaborate care,
and B reflection beaming from the refinement
of the modem age. But its fundamental, bold,
and free features are to be found only m an-
cient poets and prose writers. Original and
'translated works — religious, ascetic, and pole-
oiical writings — collections of statutes, which,
since the reign of Bigismund Augustus, have been
written in Polish, fi-equently offer precious stores
for the study of an energetic eloquence.

From the middle of the seventeenth century to
the expulsion of the Jesuits, which is an interval
6f upwards of one hundred years, Poland either
was in a state of lethargic inaction, or the prey
of hostile invasions and internal troubles. Heavy
calamities cramped her civilization, and the Polish
literature presents us only with religious legends,
ascetic writings, heraldry, and panegyrics. The
mind mostly dwelt on trifles, and mistook the aim
of its activity. '•Neglect of science, superstition,
and symptoms of a vitiated taste, daily gained

169

ground — ^the sad effects of a monastic education
propagated by the Jesuits.

Within this period translations were made of a
great many works of the ancient Latin classics,
such as Seneca, Persius, Lucan, Claudian, Apule-
jus, Boetius, and many others, without, however,
a single specimen from any of the Greek authors.
The principal trauslatora, who were also minor
original poets, are, Chroscinski, Twardowski, and
Bardzinski. The best among them is Otwinow-
ski, the translator of Ovid's Metamorphoses and
Virgil's Georgics. But his life falls rather within
the period of tlie preceding golden era. Notice
was likewise taken of modem foreign literature,
and translations made from different European
languages, especially from the French, in conse-
quence of a peculiar predilection of the Poles for
it. The literature of that people was then iu its
zenith. All nations paid to it their homage.
Comeille, Bacine, Voltaire, Bousseau, stretched
over all Europe their intellectual empire.

In a somewhat more favourable light appears
this period in the department of moral philoso-
phy. Maximilian Fredo and Stanislaus Lubomir-
sld, though living amid a general contagion, were
not tainted by its corruption. Their rules of
wisdom and prudence, pronounced in short sen-
tences, on different concerns of human affaire,
contain no less regulating substance iu morals

170

LETTERS ON POLAND.

than the Oolcten Rules of Pythagoras, or the Pro-
verbs of Soiomoa ; at leant, in estimating them,
they deserve to be ranked with no infferior sources
of practical philosophy. They inculcate piirC aftd
sound principles of conduct, and have nothing of
the corrupted conirt-inaxims of Rochefoucaiilt, and
nothing of the precepts originating in pnidetltial
selfishness which the French moralist chose to
display, in order to appear rather brilliant and
dazzling, than just and profound. The ancient
Polish writers were no secluded literati ; thCy
chiefly lived in rerum acttt, and often stood al the
helm of public affairs. Their principles dre mta-e
Worthy to be relied upon than those of the nWrt
men of books or learned anchorets, whose lucu-
brations, from their secluded life, run a chance of
being vlsionaiy. The wisdom of the former is
the matured fruit of active life and long esperJ-
enCK ; and being drawn from the real chal'acter
of the nation, it may also powerfully re-aet on H
" In their principles," says an eminent P<^b
writer, " they were not yet influenced by the
empty speculations of modern philosophers. The
thoi^hts of free men recurred to the free regions
of Greece and Rome. They songbt wisdOm at
its primitive, and probably its purest source.
Loyal and active patriots in war and in peflce,
they were thoroughly acquainted with the moral
condition and the moral wants of their country.

DE€I,iK£ 6^ tll'ESAttJBE.

Their writings, therefore, axe the most faithful
exposers of the virtues and vices of oiir ancestors,
in which we likewise participate, and which such
Tarious changes of our fortunes couid not alter.
Their works are the fruits of a native tree. They
ought to he to our taste : they are qualified for
imparting to us health and vigour,"

I have thus conducted you along the different
tracks in which the literature of the Poles aspir-
ed towards its growth. The ages prior to the
Reformation contained nothing except fragments
of popidar songs, the liturgy, and the laws — ^Ve-
nerahle only on account of their antiquity. Al-
ready for a century before the Reformation Po-
land gave intimations of a powerful circulation of
philosophical ideas, running parallel with the re-
ligious devotion of the nation. They were the
harhingers of a brighter era, and had accelerated
the approach of a golden age of Polish literature.
The Reformation occasioned the most active stir
of ideas. Already in 1440, we see the Ars Mo-
rieTtdi, a work of Mathias of Cracow, a Pole, ap-
pearing among the first specimens of printing in
xylotypes.* Swatopelk Fiol, the first printer in
Cracow, (1491,) and after him John Haller, gave
currency to the literary labours of the Poles.
Printing-offices were soon spread over the whole

» . ». • See Appendix, Note !).

LETTEES ON' POLAKB.

omintry in. aurprisiiig^ number. We see. tliem esk
tabli8hed:in many small towns, yirhere, at present,
are only to befound the unlettered sons of Israel or
peasant-like burghers. And, besides, many works
of the Poles were printed in Venice^ Basle, and
Amsterdam. Such are the evidences of the sii-^
perior civilization of Pdand in former times, and
4toQ the proofi9 of its af ter-dadine. The introduc-
tiojB of the Jesuits put a stop to the enla^cgement

ol ideas. Their order laid the foundatioa of an

^ppch sterile in liteorature fuid sad iii political
events.

■ I

• i»

• %

. *■

■': 1

. t

• ■ »

I'/

-^ LETTER VII.

Retrospect <^ the General Reform of Education — 'Lihraries

Dictionaries of the Polish Language — Bibliographies — Ma-
thematical, Physical, and Moral Sciences — Ehquence and
Poetry—The Fine Arts— The Stage. _,_,

Dear Sir,
The reign of Stanislaus Poniatowski was des-
tined to be the era when the eyes of the Poles
ehoiUd be opened to their political trespasses, as
well as to their literary aberrations. It was a
period of general reform ; and, although the Poles
failed in their political improvements, pai'tly, per-
haps, from the evils inherent in their civilization,
but chiefly from the secret machinations of ambi-
tious neighbouring princes, who sought in the
spoils of Poland their own aggrandizement, — yet
they were not so unsuccessful in abolisliing the
abtises of education. They thought, and, in my
opinion, with reason, that all their disasters
sprung from the depraved morals of the people.
They, therefore, lost no time in correcting them.
They began by emancipating the rising genera-

174

LETTERS ON POLAND.

tion from the superintendence of the clergy, and
committed them to the charge of the laity. Edu-
[ cation, which formerly had been chiefly religious,
I became moral, without, however, ceasing to take
leligion for its basis. To judge of the value of
I, such regulations by their effect would be to ap-
1 plaud them, as they have all that can be called
I good in their favour. In spite of the unfavoura-
I jtle position in which Poland, by her dlsmember-
aaent, was then placed, we aee that nothing was
able to oppose her thorough regeneration with re-
spect to morals, Sound principles struck root.
Science and the arts, in all their various branches,
began to flourish. In pi-oportion to the gradual
I ■«Dlargement of ideas, the literary records increos-
'cd. Thought and feeling, profundity and ele-
igance, acted in unison to spread knowledge and to
I «niprove the general taste,

The first step which the Polas made towards
' iteiprovement was to look back on what bad al-
I -Jeady been done by their ancestors. According-
[ 'Jy, large collections of books were made, in order
L to preserve the scattered remains of ancient lore.
' '^^is was indispensably necessary, as the ancient
I '^ligh works began to be so very scai'ce, that of
L '4those which, in former ages, were common, ecarce-
I iy any copies existed, and of others none at all,
' History, indeed, refers to many works, which
'have not yet come wifMu the sight of our bihllo-

LIBRARIES. 175

graphers. Thus the words injuria iemporia per-
lUtuta, which are applied to many Greek and La-
tin works, is equally applicable to tlie Polish.
The Poles had not only to endure the loss of pro-
vinces from the invasions of enemies, but also of
their hterary wealth. Savage foes, such as the
Tartars, in the course of their inroads, consigned
their hbrariea to the flames ; the more civilized,
such as the Swedes and Russians, carried them
off to enrich their own collections. In conse-
quence of this a great many scarce Polish books
are now in Stockholm, and the whole Jibrary
of Zaiuski, at one time the largest in Poland,
was, after the dismemberment of the countiy,
carried to Petersburgh, where it now remains,
of little use to the Russians, though it would
be of great importance in Poland. No request
for its restoration has, I believe, as yet been
communicated to the Emperor. His Majesty's
generous principles, and the great importance
which he attaches to the promotion of universal
knowledge in his dominions, are certain pledges
that the addresses of his Pohsh subjects in this
respect would be even gratifying to his feehngs.
The richest libraries now existing in Poland are
those of Prince Czartoryski, in Pulawy ; the lib-
rary of the Society of Friends of Science, at War-
saw ; and of Count Ossplinski, at Leopol. a do-
nation lately bequeathed by him to that city.

176 I.ETTEns ON POLAND.

After having collected the rich stores of their
ancient literature, the Poles next directed their
care to comprehend the spirit and riches of their
language, and for ever to fix its rides. A copious
grammar was compiled by Kopczynski, and a
dictionary, in six quarto volumes, by Linde, in
which the Polish language is conipared with all
the Sclavonic dialects — a work which, for erudi-
tion and extent, may be put by the eidi; of the
English Dictionary by Johnson, and of the Ger-
man by Adelung. Another similar Pohsh Dic-
tionary, but without the comparisons with the
other Sclavonian dialects, is now preparing for
publication by Professor Osinski. It is on a very
ixtensive plan, and more voluminous than the
preceding.
, But such philological subjects, though preeioiis
and important to the natives, convey little inte-
rest, or, at least, very dry information to the ge-
neral foreign reader. A more pleasing aspect for
a philosophical mind is aflbrded by the history of
tlie Polish literature. Different treatises existed
anciently on that subject, written by Starowolski,
John Petrici, Janocki, and others. They con-
tained useful but too vague and too dispersed no-
tices. Prince Czartorysld, an author distinguish-
ed by his various pursuits in science and litera-
•ture, first gave a more regular and general out-
line of the Pohsh literature in his work entitled,

BIQLiaGRAPHY. 177

7!%oii^hts on the Polish Authors. Bentkowald
inquired farther into the facts ; and having ar-
ranged tliem in a systematical order, brought
them under one philosophical view in his " His-
tory of Polish Literature." This excellent pro-
duction, which is still considered as merely ele-
mentary, has, besides, the merit of having a-
wakened an active curiosity for such researches.
Many have been published under the title of Sup-
plements to it.* But by far the principal work
upon this subject is Count Ossolinski's Historico-
Criticai Notices on the Polish Authors. Three
volumes of it have already been published : the
remainder will amount to twenty volumes or
more — a work unequalled for profundity and ex-
tent, except, perhaps, by that of the Gferman Bou-
terweck, — and in winch the whole life of this per-
fionage was engaged — who is no less illustrious
by his birth than for his learning and disinterest-
ed patriotic feelings. This work is dedicated to
the Society of Friends of Science at Warsaw. I
shall here transcribe a passage from his dedica-
tion, merely to give you a slight feature of the
character of this distinguished author.

" You have made it your chief object," says he,
" to cultivate yoiu- motlier-tongue, to spread
knowledge, and to add new glory to your native

• These publications are written by Chlendowaki, Sobolew-

aki and Slyczynaki.

178

LETTERS ON POLAND.

land. For my part, I have, in the course of my
life, felt an inward joy in following your generous
I Mterprise : and, when the calamities of our coun-
tay cast a mournful cloud over my soul, I sought
and found a soothing solace for my grief as often
■ as I transferred myself in thought to the ages
L past, and felt my soul in the vicinity of those il-
I lostrious shades whose feats in war were Poland's
[ shield, and whose writings were her glory." Hav-
f ihg then given a general view of his work, for
) which he had prepared all the necessary materials,
[ he proceeds : " The infirmities of my advanced
fage, and perhaps death itself, may cut me short
f in the undertaking : indeed, it is not likely that I
I shall ever see its completion ; but 1 have made
I such arrangements, that my native land shall not
\ he disappointed in this my legacy."

Such noble efforts and such labour have been
f "bestowed in Poland on pliilological and biographi-
f ttl researches. The whole life of the most inge-
I aious men has often been engaged in these pur-
no wonder, therefore, that they astonish
by their voluminousness and erudition. I am far
from laying much stress on the gr^nmars, dic-
tionaries, and bibliographies. They are not the
things themselves, they are only their representa-
tives ; but s\ich representatives, that, supposing
ail other Polish literary documents to perish, and
Poland and tlie Polish language to be forgotten^

^^^^^sm^9^m^i^

EXACT SCIENCES.

179

which is not likely, — should, however, these works
outlive the general ruin, I do not doubt that, on
seeing them, posterity would inquire, What is the
language they are written in ? what was the coun-
try to which they belonged? what were the illustri-
ous names which made it glorious? Should no reply
bf given to any of these questions, wouldnot a silent
conviction spontaneously steal upon the miud of the
inquirer, that a nation which spoke so rich a lan-
guage, and on whose literature so many volumes
had been written, must necessarily have been of
great political importance, and must have occupied
a high place in the scale of civilization. Such must
be the impression at the first glance of these monu-
ments of Polish literature. — Let ub now inquire
into the state of the exact sciences of this period.
The Poles are known to have ever been distin-
guished for their zeal in cultivating the mathe-
matics. It is to this strong bias that they are in-
debted for their Vitelio, Copernicus, Martinus of
Olltusz, and Sniadecki. Since the time of Brud-
zewski, (1430,) who might be considered as the
founder of a school of mathematics,* on account
of the great number of distinguished pupils he
educated, and among the rest Copernicus, this
kind of study was zealously promoted in Poland,
Mathematical science suffered, indeed, a decline

• See Appendix, Note lO.

180

LETTERS ON POLAND.

from its former celebrity iu the schools of tlie Je-
suits, that order being disposed to rule more by-
its influence over men's consciences than over
tlieir reason, which they intended to bewilder ra-
ther than to enlighten ; but the study of it was
again revived in the schools and universities after
the reform of education had taken place.

Mathematics, like other sciences, were in Po-
I land taught in Latin ; and, even during the last
' epoch, the first elementary mathematical work,
for the use of schools, was written in that lan-
guage, by Mr Lhuiller. But the Poles were soon
aware that the mother-tongue was the fittest me-
diiuu for conveying this science. Owing to this
feet, several mathematical works" appeared in Po-
lish, The technical foreign language, so perplex-
ing to the comprehension of a Polish student, was
exchanged for the vernacular, both in the mathe-
matical and physical sciences. The new lermin-
I ology was so skilfully contrived, that the Polisli
words were not strict translations of the technical,
Imt rather a happy formation of terms, adapted
to the thirgs which they were meant to signify ;
80 that both the terms and the things signified be-
came at once intelligible, without any farther de-
finition ; — moreover, they expressed the meaning
of the subject more exactly than the techiUcal ter-
minology, in which, as it is known, there is some-
times great looseness and inaccuracy. In this

EXACT SCIENCES.

181

manner the mathematical and physical depart-
ment of the Polish language is as pure and na-
tional as if the sciences themselves had received
their birth on Polish ground, and the Poles had
never heard of the Greek or the Latin employed,
which is the vehicle for conveying them among
other nations. The uncommon pliability of the
Polish language in the formation of words from
the primitive roots, fof every set of conceptions,
made this an easy task. The most eminent ma-
thematicians of the present period are Zaborow-
ski, Czech, and John Sniadecki. The latter is the
author of a work on Algebra, and of Mathemati-
co-Physical Geography, which has lately been
translated into Russian. Other matliematicians
of some note are Polinski and Arminski. Abra-
ham Stem, a learned Polish Jew, member of the
Society of Friends of Science, is the inventor of a
Calculating Machine, which, by means of wheels
like those of a watch, performs its operations of
the four coimnon rules, and of the Jractiotis, with
perfect accuracy. He intended pursuing the same
plan in order to make a machine for extracting
the square and cube roots ; but I cannot ascertain
how far he succeeded in his ingenious and com-
plicated scheme of rendering a part of mathema-
tics a mere mechanical operation.

The mathematical and physical branches of
study constitute at present the chief part of edu-

18S

LETTERS ON POLAND.

cation in the Polish schools — a regulation which,
■ by its excess, is rather hurtfiil, as it is apt to di-
vert the youth from their moral and literary pfur-
siiits.

Natural Philosophy is only theoretical in Po-
land, and as yet was little applied to practice.
Tliis must be the case in every country where
manufactures are in an infant state, employing
no machinery to which the application of physi-
cal laws is required. The proficiency of this
science depends greatly upon observation and
experience, and extends its range the more in
proportion as it has occasion to be reduced to
practice.

In this respect chemistry has been more fortu-
nate. Applications of its principles are made in
medicine ; and in Poland it has a wide field for
practice in agricultiu-e, where different chemical
experiments are daily made for obtaining various
economical results. Oczapowski published lately
an excellent work, in which he illustrates at some
length the phenomena of chemical processes in
agriculture. This established union betwixt the
theory and the practice easily accounts for the
Poles having much more valuable works on che-
mistry than on natural philosophy. The most
distinguished chemists are Dr Sniadecki and
Colonel Chodkiewicz, the former a learned man
by profession, the latter from a love of science.

EXACT SCIENXES. 183%^

Poland, as au agriniltural country, affords a
wide field for agronomical studies. They may be
considered as moral and physical. The jnoral
part has for its subject the explanation of the re-
lations subsisting among the landlord, (Seigneur,)
the peasantry, and the Jews. These three classes
act and react upon each other, both morally and
physically, so as to influence the pi-ogress of agri-
cixlture. This land of observations might as well
be treated under the head of political economy,
and they really constitute an important part of it;
but I preferred separating them, as too minute for
the principles of the system, being rather of too
special a nature, and applicable to Poland alone.
The physical part concerns the tillage and im-
provement of the soil, rural buildings, machinery,
and the rearing of cattle- On both these branches
numex'ous treatises exist in Poland. The authors
of note, who have written theii* observations in a
systematic form, are Lachnicki and Chocko, in
moral concerns, — Renter and Biernacki, in physi-
cal. Of all the foreign economists, Thaer's Prin-
ciples of Agriculture are esteemed the most ap-
plicable to the Polish soil. Tlie care bestowed for
many years on the improvement of agriculture in
Poland did not fail to place it on a very good
footing. But every good has its concomitant
*vil. The quantity of produce and the want of a

M* LETTERS ON POLAND.

com trade are daily augmentiiig agricultural dis-
ress.

Botany has, for many centuries, been much
cultivated in Poland. The fruitful soil and the
■^epctensive provinces of that ancient kingdom ex-
I .panded the limitt^ of the rich and variegated do-
i ,iIiaiD3 of Flora. Already, in the sixteenth cen-
I itury, we see lahorious researches on that subject
.made by Sirenius and Urzendowski, subsequently
augmented by those of Kluk. The series of Po-
lish botaniats is kept up by Jundzil and Schu-

■ ,bert, the one a professor at Wilna, the other at
[ WarBaw, both celebrated by various publications

on that subject. Jundzil is particularly known
I by his Flora Lithuanica, and his writings on

Boology and mineralogy.

The practice of medicine, which formerly was

chiefly in the hands of foreigners, (Geiman and

French,) became within the last half of the eigh-
I teenth century the occupation of the natives. In
i consequence of the encouragements afforded by

■ government, the knowledge of medicine spreads ra-

, .jndly over the country. A good nmnber of stu-
dents are gratuitously maintained for this pur-
L jpose, at the expence of the government. Pupils
, Bius educated are bound, in their turn, to per-
r i'onn during six years the duties of surgeons in
I the army, their fuU pay, however, and other usual
tnolumentB) being secured to them. After the ex-

MOEAL SCIENCES.

185

piration of this time, they are free from any far-
ther obligation. The University of Wilna is the
most celebrated for medicine. The time of study
required for graduation was formerly six years,
and has been lately augmented to seven. The
Sfune regulation is extended to all the universitjes
in Russia. Such is the importance attached to
the education of those upon whom the health and
the lives of their fellow-creatures depend. No in-
dividual graduated in a foreign university is al-
lowed to practise in Russia and in Poland, before
undergoing an examination at some one of their
universities, and receiving a diploma from the fa-
culty.

The moral sciences alone have not made the pro-
gress that might be wished for. The cause seems
not to lie in any want of love and exertion, for
these have not been wanting, but in the very na-
ture of moral objects, the study of which, in its
progressive march, encounters more diiSculties
and impediments than any other science founded
on observation and experience. v

With respect to divinity, different improve- ,
ments are going on for the promotion of it. Se-
minaries are erected for the education of young
divines. The students, besides their professional
studies, ax-e bound to be acquainted with their
subsidiary branches, as Latin, Greek, and now
even Oriental literature. Traces of the bigotry im-

186

LETTEUS ON POLAND.

planted by the Jesuits and their pupils, disappear
both from among the theologians and the people ;
flound and purer religious principles are daily
gaining ground. Poland has always been knowu
B a countiy distinguished for its religious tolera-
f tjon : this spirit is prevalent at present, and ex-
■ tends equally to Russia. All men, of whatever
I Christian persuasion, are, in the eye of the law,
equal. Those of other rehgions, as the Tartars
fflid Jews, enjoy the free exercise of their wor-
ship and the full protection of the law.

In Poland, as in all Catholic countries, moral
I philosophy was closely wedded to religion. Pro-
testant countries alone have produced eminent
moral philosophers, who developed their princi-
ples independently of religion. The works of the
Stagyrite were long the sole manual of moral sub-
[ jeets discussed by the Polish leaj-ned. The suund
I philosophical views of Gregory of Sauok, (1440,)
I whom I have mentioned elsewhere, did not pre-
I frail in Poland. His writings, though generally
' ,admired, were not numerous, and their contents
could not be so easUy disseminated, as he lived be-
fore the era of printing. The name of Aristotle
continued to resound from every chair of philoso-
phy. The tranaiation of his works into Polish
by Petrici, and the tasteful commentaries on his
I tpolitics and ethics, furnished all that was necessa-

tbr estabUshinff his authority, both amoi
m^PMagBa

MORAL SCIENCES. 187

the schoolmen and the laity. The same doctrines
were propagated by the Jesuits during their
learned hierarchy in Poland, with the application
of the acute rules of his logic to the support of
religious tenets. It is only in our days that the
authority of Aristotle has lost its hold of the mind
in philosopliy, as that of the saints in matters of
religion. The Poles, however, have not reaped
any signal advantage from this change, as even
yet they have no directing authority in moral
science ; and their philosophy presents a confus-
ed aspect, either inclining to the eccentricities of
the Germans, or the materialism of tlie French.
This is not the effect of public instruction, but of
private promiscuous study. The lectures upon
this subject were never rendered so popular as to
pervade the bulk of the nation, and determine its
opinion and belief. The most noted philosopher
who has lately appeared among the Poles is A-
bicht, professor at Wilna ; but being a German
by birth, he wrote and delivered his lectures in
Latin. His principles, therefore, could not strike
so deep a root as they would have done had they
been delivered in the language of the natives.
Kvery nation desirous of propagating philosophi-
cal ideas amongst its citizens must philosophize
in its own language. This is the path followed
by all nations which have acquired philosophical
renown. The Poles ought to avail themselves

188

LETTERS ON POLAND.

of the hints afforded them b7 these historical
Jftcts, and develope their ideas in their own
language, with the view to attain the renown
I W possessing a national philoeophy, like the
French, the Germans, and the Scottish. Of all
Jihilosophers the Scottish come the nearest to hu-
tean concerns, and should also be the nearest
♦o human bosoms. By keeping the middle line
%etwixt the experience and the doctrines of
I *' pure reason" they fall into none of the extremes
ttf the French and the Germans. In their high
f topirations they foUow nature in her mysterious
I Workings as far as the hmnan faculties are able to
ftllow her, and then prostrate themselves in adora-
[ tSon before the invisible throne to which nature is
Bilked. They consider the affairs of man with
, iMmilar concern as Socrates, who is said to have
I "brought down philosophy from heaven, — nay, they
I 'do more, they leave to heaven what excli^ively
I 4>elongs to heaven, and concern themselves only
|%ith what is conducive to the happiness of the
Jlttman race. In Scotland the soul does not shrink
at philosophy as at something contagious, which,
in the opinion of the people, either makes its pupils
lost to heaven by raising doubts, or renders them
useless tothe world by its eccentricities. Onthecon-
trary, it is admirably adapted to the sound instruc-
tion ofyouDgi>eople,asitenhght€n9theirmind8and
purifies their hearta. The Scottish school oi phi-

MORAL SCIENCES.

losophy h&B ever been distinguished for soudiI
moral principlee, and practical wisdom. The
writings of Reid, Smith, Kaines, Stewart, and
Brown, are evident proofs of it. They unite
depth of thought with simplicity and idegance of
speech — are intelligible and popular — qualities in
which they excel most other philosophers, and
which are best calciilated to propagate the princi-
ples they teach. Their tenets are commendable
as well as theii* method, and the Poles, in deve-
loping their moral thoughts, can never follow any
models more sound than theirs, — which are no
less philosophical than religious — no leas profound
than chaste and sober. Among the Poles, John
Sniadecki is the only author whose writings make
some approaches to these models. In his inqui>
ries on the subject of philosophy and literature, he
combines the precision of a mathematician in his
deductions, with the acuteness of a man of the
world in his observations, delivering his thoughts
in a style at once nervous, pure, and elegant.
Brodzinski's writings excel in the same qualities
of language. Their subjects are mostly literaiy ;
they, however, often touch on the regions of phi-
loHOphy. But a strictly metaphysical book, in
which metaphysics are reduced to a regular sys-
H tein, is that of laronski. His disquisitions on
H the nature of mind are entitled to a great
^b share of consideration. They claim it, however,

igO LETTERS ON POLAND.

more from the novelty of the attempt thau from

the originality of his views. The author adhered

too closely to the system of a well known German

, philosopher ; in so much, that he even disfigured

, tiie Polish language by translating hterally the

German terminology. Szaniawsld, in tracing the

tyatevis of the ancient philosophers^ combined just-

38 of views with purity of expression. Yet it

, may be said, after all, that moral philosophy is

, still in its infancy in Poland.

Its more practical branch, Pohtical Economy,
has tliere been more cultivated, where it several
years since became a particular object of study.
_ Its fundamental principles were developed upon
, tiie basis of Adam Smith's " Wealth of Nations."
On his Theory public lectui'es were dehvered iu
the University of Wilna. The Theory was after-
wards more fully elucidated, in its apjdication to
..Poland and Russia, by the Senator Stroynowski.
[ .The work of the latter has been lately translated
into Russian ; and on account of the sound views
I iflisplayed in it may be placed by the side of
L.Storch. Of all the branches of moral science this
I, has made tlie greatest progress in Poland. The
Lj[ttinciple8 of Say and Rieardo are much in vogue.
Law, in Poland, exhibits the most heterogeneous
faaos. Formerly the Poles were governed by
Statutes and Constitutions, sanctioned by the suf-
frages of the whole nation, in a General Diet. la

I
I

MOHAL SCIENCES, igi

Lithuania the Code of Leo Sapieha prevailed, and
still has in that province a regulative power. The
Polish towns were originally governed by the
adopted Jus Magdeburgense. Since the partition
of that country, the law has become a compound
of the Prasaian Landrecht, Imperial Ukases, Aus-
trian Law, the Code Napoleon, and the ancient
and the new Polish Constitutions. There can be
no attraction in such a chaos — the study of it
would be depressing to any human mind. Thus,
it may be said witli reason, that Poland, during
the last thirty years, has exhibited a wilder auai--
chy than during the two consecutive centuries in
which she was governed by her elective kings.
The Roman civil and criminal law is studied in
the universities ; likewise the Law of Nature and
of Nations, both of great utility to the Polish
student, as they are the fittest subjects for con-
veying theoretical and practical ideas of law,
and for guiding him amidst the deluge of confu-
sion.

Universal History, on which Bentkowski at
Warsaw, and Lelewel at Wilna, deliver their
philosophical views, and the nimierous and ex-
cellent works on national history, the study of
which occupies the Poles in private reading, com-
plete the whole cycle of the moral sciences, and
of moral education in Poland.

Pohsh historical literature can boast of some

193

LETTERS ON POLAND.

valuable statistical accounts. Swiencki, in Mb
Geography of Ancient Poland, gave an acciu-ate
information of the sources of the national wealth
of the Poles, and of their political and commercial
relations subsisting with different European coun-
tries. Surowiecki, iu his History of the Polish
Towns and Peasantry, gave a chronological view
of manufactories and trade, and pointed out the
causes of the gradual decline of these two classes
of society. Lately, Count Raczynski presented
the public with a Statistical Account of Podolia
and Ukraine. It is a splendid publication, adorn-
ed with plates, to which is annexed, his Journey
to the Plains of Troy, with a topographical de-
scription of them.

Eloquence, as is the case under all free and po-
pular governments, has always flourished in Po-
land. Since the fifteenth centuiy, it has been fur-
thered by instructions given in the imiversities ;
and its most distinguished professors were Gorski,
Herberst, and Marycki. Their disquisitions ap-
pear to have been founded chiefly on the writings
of Demosthenes and Cicero, conjoined with the
dialectics of Aristotle.* But eloquence in Poland
was not a mere dead letter consigned to books and
schools : It was a living breath of active lite which
pervaded all ranks of the nation. Most of the

• See Appendix, Note li.

ELOQU32NCE.

193

I
I
I

^_ UIJ I

elective kings possessed this gift; and often exert-
ed it skilfully in controlling the turbulent effer-
vescence of freedom. We freqnently see Polish
chiefs addressing the array, and, by means of their
orstoi'ial powers, checking mutinies, and diverting
the rebellious impulse into the clianne) of military
enthusiasm. Taroowski, Zolkiewski, and Chod-
kiewicz, were equally eminent as chieftains and as
eloquent speakers. Polish history is full of speeches
of their kings, generals, and statesmen, — derives
&om tliem its principal beauty, and almost antique
dignity, so ranch admired in Xenophon and Livy.
The period immediately previous to the partition
of Poland, during which all tlie energies of the peo-
ple were aroused, is also distinguished for genuine
eloquence in the diets. King Stanislaus took the
lead; and Ignatius Potocki, Kollontay, and Czacla,
were equally conspicuous as statesmen and as
orators. In Poland tliis accomphshment seems to
have always been the resiUt of practice and habit,
assisted by the reading of classic models, rather
than the fruit of precijpt ; for books on that sub-
ject are few in number, and of comparative httle
value. It is only since the partition, when the
Poles were deprived of the advantage of public
speaking, and even controlled in expressing their
sentiments on publicaffairsinfamiliar conversation,
that regard has been paid to the rules and the-
ory of eloquence. During sucli unfortunate inter-

194

LETTETIS ON POLAND.

vals there is room furQuiiitilians to appear. Wlien
the free breath is stifled there is i)lace only for the
. rules of speech. In this time Count Stanislaus
■Potocki wrote his four volumes " On Eloquence,"
Butl made also a practical display of the sound
principles which they contained, in his elegant
-work entitled " The Eulogies of celebrated Poles,'
and particularly of those who fell victims in de-
fence of tlieir country's violated rights. A ceno-
itaphical monimient at Villanow, anciently a coun-
try seat of King John Sobieski, is engraven with
.the names of tliose magnanimous dead.
• From the end of the fifteenth centiuy till the
present time poetry has been taught publicly in
•imiveraitiee, and its professors, who, at the same
ttjme, were eminent poets, were Paul of Krosno,
.iEckius, Agricola, and Sarbiewski, More recent-
ly, various attempts have been made for elucidat-
ing philosophically its theory, but as yet they are
Jar from being satisfactory. Krasicki's treatise
on this subject is mostly historical, dwelling rather
on the principles of Aristotle and of the French
school, than exhibiting new philosophical views,
more confonnable to nature. Dmochowski, in
his " Poem on Poetry," adheres very closely to
Horace's " Ars Poetica," and not unlike Boileau
and Pope, is, upon the whole, his worthy follower.
His observations relating to Pohsli poetry are
acute and just. Slowacki endeavoured to give an

H ^"S

THE FINE ARTS. 105

outline of the Belles Lettres in the manner of
Blair ; but it is rather short and imperfect, and
esteemed more for elegance of style than depth of
thought. A great deal is now expected from
Ofiinsld. His lectures on this subject are deliver-
ed with uncommon eloquence, and are attended
not only by the regular students, but by numbers
of polite society, ladies not excepted. But in his
system he attends to the French models ; that is to
say, he is more friendly to classical than to ro-
mantic hterature. In England, you would per-
haps call him a follower of Pope, in contradistinc-
tion to the Lake school. His remarks, however,
on the Polish poetry, which is neither strictly
classical nor decidedly romantic, but has a pecu-
liar character of its own, may be expected to have
much weight, and seem accordingly to be fully ap-
preciated. Brodzinski, in a treatise, has, in the
most satisfactory manner, illustrated the nature of
classical and romantic literature, and the relation
in which Polish poetry stands to each of them re-
spectively.

The fine arts, likewise, have not been neglected
in Poland. The government encourages them
equally with science and literature. At Warsaw,
there is every year an exhibition of paintings and
engravings, and the government awards prizes
Wilna contains a public school of painting and
engraving, where several pupils are maintained at

196

LETTKES ON POLAND.

the expenee of the government. The first is un-
der the direction of Ruetera, a Pole, the other was,
till within these few years, under that of Mr
Saunders, an Englishman. Poland can boast of
having possessed two first-rate painters, Czecho-
wicz and Smuglewiez, both educated in Italy, at
the fountain of the fine arts. The paintings of
the letter adorn the Cathedral of Wilna ; several
of them are to be found in the churches at ^Var-
eaw, also in St Petersburgh, whither he had been
invited by the Emperor Paul. He excelled in
strong original conceptions. His subjects are for
the most part religious, taken from the Bible, like
those of the English West. Some few of them
are historical. The Assassination of St Stanislaus,
the tutelary saint of Poland, by King Boleslaus
the Bold, and his Cain and Abel, are masterpieces
of art, and much admired by connoisseurs.

Music is in a flourishing state, and mnch care
is bestowed on it, both in private and in public.
Warsaw contains a numerous society of amateurs
for the cultivation of church-music. The best of
the professional composers are Kurpinski, and the
two Lessels, fatlier and son. The latter, in con-
sideration of his talents, has lately been invested
witii nobility by tlie Emperor. Lipinski is well
known as an eminent performer on the violin.
His successful and well attended concerts in Leo-
j^Vienna, and Warsaw, are sufficient pi-oofs of

THE FINE ARTS.

his skill and public estimation. I feel I have the
right of adding to these a naturalized citizen of
Edinburgh, Mr Yaiiiewicz, a Pole by birth, who,
by having gained, in this his adopted country, so
much real esteem and applause, cannot but reflect
a pleasing light on his native land, which makes
a Pole remember his name with endearment, and
a degree of national pride.

The theatre is equally under the patronage of
the government. The Dramatic School educates
aspirants for the stage. At its head stands Osin-
aki, the same of whom I have spoken as lectiu-er
on Polish literature in the University. Among
the actore the most conspicuous are Kudlicz in
tragedy, and Ziolkowski in comedy, both authors
of different dramatic pieces. Among the actresses
Mrs Leduchowska and Miss Nacewicz hold the
highest rank. The first is particularly applauded
in the part of Lady Macbetli. Boguslawski, once
their fellow-actor, is now publishing his dramatic
works in twelve volumes, which will, no doubt, be
gratifying to the public, as they have for a long
time afforded them a great delight upon the stage.
He might be called the Kemble of Poland, and
like him, now lives in retirement.

But I am afraid of entering too minutely into
particulars. These, however, I think, were such
as to convey you a more precise idea of what is
going on in that part of Europe, than mere gene-

198 LETT3EES ON POLAND.

ral observations arranged in any other form would
have jdone. You are now acquainted with the
state of science and the arts in Poland ; there still
remains for yoJ consideration her polite liten.-
ture of the present day. But this I must reserve
for some future communication.

199

LETTER VIII.

Modern Polish Poetry — Eminent Modern Poets^-^Dramatic
Literature and its WriterS'^Causes of the Multiplicity oj
Writers in Poland — The Patronage — Polish Female An--
thors — Conclusion,

Dear Sir,
I HAVE somewhere made the remark, that mo-
dern Polish poetry is historical and elegiac, its
subject being the commemoration of the past.
For the same reason, it may as well be called the
sentimental, a designation which Schiller confers
on that species of poetry, or the romantic, as it
is called by Schlegel. Both appellations are
equally appropriate, since the one implies feeling
the other enthusiasm, the very qualities which
characterise Polish poetry. Specimens of what
Schiller calls naive poetry, which presents itself to
the mind like a Grecian statue, rather than a
painting, and works more outward than inward,
may frequently be found in our traditional poetry,
and especially in the songs of the Cracovian pea-
santry. Such specimens are rather, scarce in the
works of the cultivated poet& Out of their great

number, I can adduce but three authors who may
be said to have been occasionally naive, namely,
Karpinski in his Laura and Filon, an amorous
dialogue ; Kniaznin in his Krosienka, when a
country maid sitting at her loom betrays her love
with a most unconscious simplicity ; and Krasicki
in several of his fables. Iliis quality of his fables
makes them so popular and so pleasing, that old
and young know them by heart, and, on hearing
their simple-told moral truths, old and young can-
not forbear smiling. All naive poetry is an in-
disputable test of genius ; and, in fact, the au-
thors now mentioned as the most naive are also
the most original, and in those qualities which
constitute a true poet siu^iass all others. This
excellence of poetiy caimot be attained by art. It
is like the happy li^yixa of a mathematician, the
offspring of accident, rather than of labour. It is
the revealed creation of a moment, like the Phi-
dian statue of Jupiter, from the accidental hear-
ing of Homer's lines,

" He spoke, and awful l)ends bis sflble brows ;
Shakea his ambrosial curls, and givea the nod ;
The 3l«nip of fate, and sanction of the God ;
High Heav'n, with trembling, the dread signal took.
And all Olympus to the centre shook. — Pope.

MODEEN POETtt.

In Poland a general tendency to poetical en-
thusiasm, and to the endearments of poetry, seems
to pervade the whole nation. The nobles, who
are numerous, lead a life of ease. The produc-
tive soil of their estates precludes all fear of want,
and provides them with luxuries. Though their
lives are apparently inactive, their minds cannot
be 90 : their mental vigour must either prey upon
itself, or receive nourishraent from without. They,
therefore, either indulge in reveries of their own,
or cherish those of others. Among a people of
these dispositions, who, besides, are known for
their lively imaginations and ready enthusiastic
feelings, there must be poets, and Mecsenases of
poets. Study and means are both necessary to
acquire learning ; but poetiy is a ready gift of in-
spiration. Its sources are feeling and iniagina-
tian, which are natural endowments, common in
a greater or less degree to all human beings.
The high and the low, the learned and the un-
learned, have their poetical moments. According-
ly, even our peasantry, and particularly those
around Cracow and in Ukraine, are distinguished
for their extemporaneous poetical flights. Hence
it may be said, that in Poland,

Docti, uidoctique scribimus poemata passim.

In the " Dictionary of the Polish Poets," pub-
lished in 1820 by Juszynski, the lives of upwards

LETTERS ON rOLASl).

of 1400 are described, including tnie poets, versi-
fiers, poetasters, scribblers, aud those

Whom Phusbus, in his \re.

Hath blasted with poetic fire.

And yet his Dictionary is not completed ; it (com-
prises only the poets anterior to the reign of Stan-
islaus Poniatowski.

In surveying the Polish poetry of the present
day, I shall not detain you with the minor poets,
Buch as Minasowicz, Szymanowski. Wengier-
ski, Tanski, Dmochowski, MoJski, Tomaszewski,
though I may, perhaps, be challenged for calling
them minor poets, since the posthumous works of
6ome of them are deeply impressed on the memo-
ries of the Poles, and will long be perused with
universal delight ; nor am I willing to enlarge
upon the merits of modem poets, such as Okra-
Bzewski, Tymowski, Mickiewicz. Szydlowski, who
being eager votaries of the Muses, have already
gained much admiration, but whose promising
fame is as yet in the bosom of futiu-ity. I shall
only advert to those who, on the ground of their
contemplations, occupy the highest station, and
whose works might be considered an ornament of
the literature of any coimtry. These are, Nani-
szewicz, Krasicki, Kniaznin, Trembecki, Karpin-
rfd, Niemcewicz, and Brodzinski. Each of these
lias pursued his oirn peculiar path : their works.

MODERN POETS,

SOS

therefore, according to their distinctive charac-
ters, deseiTe to be sepaa-ately L-oneidered.

The most eminent poet of latei* times is Kra~
sicki. Bishop of Warmia, His ecclesiastical avo-
cations, as the head of the church, did not in any
way incapacitate him for the exercise of his poeti-
cal powers ; nor do^ any thing occur in his writ-
ings savouring of professional cant. He lived at
the time when Frederick II. King of Prussia,
equally great as a warrior and philosoplier, was
surrounded by the first wits of that age. The
superior talents of the Polish poet coidd not pass
imnoticed by that monarch. He was invited to
his court, and there he became a member of that
learned association, and one of the monarch's fa-
vourites. *

Krasicki may be called the Voltaire of Poland;
his cast of mind and his writings much resemble
those of the French philosopher. Voltaire al^
tacked religion and the clergy in France ; Kra-

• In one of their cunversations the King had with him,
the monarch remarkeil, in a jocular way, that, as Bishop,
he might facilitate for him the entrance to Heaven ; and, in
case of great need, which he had good reasons to appre-
hend, conceal him under hia gown. " Sire, 1 would readi'^
ly do you this service, but your Majesty has of late cut my
gown too short." This was intended as a hit at the con-
&sCBtion of the church lands, which had diminished the Bi-
shop's revenue. The Kinj^r smiled at the repartee, ami ac-
companied his smile with a valuable present to the Bishop.

204

I.ETTEItS ON POLAND.

sicki revered religion, but though himself one
of the clergy, was the scourge of the abuses
and selfish views of the priesthood. In his
poem Monachomachia, or the War of the Monks,
he represents the bigotry and ignorance of the
monastic orders in a most ludicrous manner.
His pleasantry gave rise to a considerable die-
jrfeasure; in so much that, to appease irascible
minds, he thought it advisable to write an An-
H-Mona^ihomackia, a recantation of what he
had advanced in the former. The first poem was
occasioned by the following circumstance : At one
time, when Krasicki canie to Sans-Souci, Frede-
rick the Great assigned to him the same apartment
which Voltaire usually occupied, remarking, at the
same time, " Bishop, in a place such as this you
ought to be inspired." The implied injunction
was in fact realized, and the fruit of the inspira-
tion was the aforesaid poem, in six cantos, so con-
genial to the writings of Voltaire, — being in no-
thing inferior to the Pulpit of Boileau ; it seems
, even to surpass it in light wit, and playfulness of
fancy. In his Satires he is likewise a match for
Boileau. He has not produced such a variety of
them ; but those which exist bear the stamp of
uncommon genius. He displays in them a pro-
found knowledge of human nature, and all the
stratagems for assailing vicious propensities. In
writing these he followed a plan of his own. The

MODERN POETS

fiOd

aucieut as well as the modem satirists, Boileau not
excepted, were mostly personal ; if they did not
openly attack individuals, they pointed them out
as cognizable by very distinct and palpable allu-
sions. Krasicki's satires are tree from either of
&ese faults. His shafts are directed against na-
tional, not individual foibles. His dramatis per-
soaiee are fictitious, but his sting strikes its design-
ed mai'k. From his own words we may best con-
ceive the principles which he has followed. " The
satire," says he, " tells truth — it abjures all per-
sonal concern— it honours the government — ^re-
veres the king — but judges the Man."

The same path he seems to have pursued in his
Myssteis, a tragicomical poem, in ten cantos, re-
presenting a war between the Mice and the Cats.
The Mice obtain the victory ; in consequent-e of
which Popiel, a dissolute Polish monarch, a sort
of Sarmatian Sardanapalus, and his supposed mi-
nisters the Cats, are devoured by the Mice. The
subject is founded on the fabulous history of Po-
land. The whole composition hinges on national
usages and prejudices ; aud ia a dehghtful creation
of a sprightly and fertile fancy. Homer's Batra-
chomyomachia is the only known production of a
similai- nature. The scene is aii island in the
lake of Gopio, near Ki'uswica, the most ancient
capital of Polasd — in short, what Scone is in
Scotland.

S06

LETTERS ON POLAND.

Of Krasicki. as a superior Fahidist, I have
already spoken. His biographer remarks, that,
" had he left nothing of his pen but his satires
and fables, he would have been sufficiently entit-
led to claim the first rank among the Polish poets.''
His Journey to BUgoray and his Poetical Ijetters,
both consisting of a mixture of prose and verse,
might be considered as models in this kind of easy
and delightful poetical excursions, so well fitted to
create a general interest. The War of Chocim is
his only poem on a serious theme. It has for its
subject the several victories obtained over the
Turks by the Poles, under the conduct of their fa-
mous leader Chodkiewicz. It is, like Lucan's
Pliarsalia, a noble and affecting historical poem.
Yet, after all, it must be allowed that the bent of
Krasicki's imagination was not of a serious cast.
His serious efforts were only secondary, and sub-
ordinate to his humour and wit.

He is also the author of three novels, if they

may he so called ; since, notwithstanding the form

of novels, and their light and engaging mode of

narrative, they appear too strictly connected

1^ with history and reality, which may perhaps ex-

1' elude them from the rank of fictitious composi-

I tions. In his Hosiviadaynski he describes the

► life of a Polish nobleman, exposing him to differ-

' ent adventm-es in his own country, and on his

f travels abroad, — draws a faithful picture of the

MODERN POETS*

ancient system of education in Poland, — <»f the in-
trigues in the diets and judicature, frequently con-
trasted with proceedings of a similar nature in fo-
reign countries. In his Podstoli (the Sewer) he
gives a portraiture of the domestic life, rural oc-
cupations, hospitality, and manners of the Poles.
In his novel entitled the History, he supposes his
hero possessed of the secret of restoring himself
to life, dtiring the lapse of several centuries, by
means of a reviving balsam. In his pilgrimage
through countries as well as centuries, he ia
made to witness different events and revolutions
of states, which he repoi-ts in a manner different
from the usual, assigning actions, and motives of
actions, according to the more probable agency of
latent schemes and passions. His part is that of
a sceptic in history. This work forms a pleasing
narrative, on account of the peculiar charms of the
style, and the novel mode of viewing things, which
had long been objects of strong belief. It has been
translated into French.

Upon the whole, I ought to remark, that the
Poles have no Uterature of novels as the other
European countries. The spirit of adventure had
little hold of their minds at any time. They were
neither a crusading nor a seafaring people. Their
life was too busy, and rather public than domes-
tic. Public affairs alone were held worthy of
forming a topic for writing, For these reasons

208

LETTERS ON POLAND.

the Greeks and Romans, 80 rich iu other literary
works, had no novels. The practical inactivity of
a considerable part of the present society, gives
more and more room and encoui-agement for this
branch of literature, so fitted to gratify the refine-
ment of effeminate feelings, and the mystical ten-
dency of imaginary longings. It is now not enoiigh
to have pur bodies at ease ; our minds must have
also their own comforts. Practical pursuits, both
in life and in science, had for a long time diverted
the Poles from the regions of that species of fic-
tion. All their novels are but of recent date, being
either translations or imitations of foreign ones ;
and the few national ones may be limited to those
of Rrasicki and Niemcewicz. Bematowicz's no-
vel, the Inconsiderate Vows, is too close an imi-
tation of the Nouvelle HeUtise, to deserve the
name of a strictly national production. Still,
however, it abounds with genuine original episodes
of uncommon beauty, such as the " Cracovian
Wedding" and the " New Yeai-'s Day Evening." *
Of the female novel writers I shall speak in another
place.

As a proof of Krasicki's extensive learning, I
ought here to notice his Dictimiary of Use/kl
Knowledge, in the form of an Encyclopaedia, in
two large volumes ; a very excellent Account of
the poetry and the poets of all nations, with spe-
cimens of their beauties ; a translation of Ossian's

MODERN POETS.

Poems, aud of Lucian's Dialogues. He also wrote
valuable imitations of the latter, in which are in-
troduced eminent men of his own country, con-
versing with one another, or with the celebrated
dead of ancient Greece or Rome, His genius was
comprehensive and versatile, and his laborious per-
severance imwearied. He died in 1801 at Berlin.
Only a few days before his death he finished his
Letters on the Gardens. His select works Were
pubhshed in ten volume*.

A contemporary author with Krasiclii, or ra-
ther a little prior to him, is Bishop Nai'uszewicz.
He happened to live on the very confines where
the new epoch of reform commenced, without par-
ticipating, however, in any of the faults imputed
to the period immediately preceding, except, per-
haps, a slight inclination to panegyric, and a flow-
ery styla. He is the first celebrated author with
whom the reform of Polish literature hegan ; and
who furthered its progress by his numerous and
varied writings distinguished by energy of thought
and expression. In his youth his education had
bepn entrusted to the Jesiiits ; afterwards he even
became one of their order. There was an austere
seriousness about him, which may partly be at-
tributed to his ecclesiastical vocation, partly to hia
earnest and laborious hterary pursuits. His sub-
jects, like those of Krasicki, were solely polite li-
teratiu-e, and none ecclesiastical. He wrote Sa~

aio

LETTER8 ON POLAND.

tires, which smite the guilty with the force of
lightning. He might be styled the Pohsh Juve-
nal ; Ki'asicki the Polish Horace, The one im-
petuously rebukes and upbraids ; the other, with
a smooth courtier-Uke face, albUi dent/bus ridet.
The one is an open, virtuous, enthusiastic zealot,
shocked at the sight of vice and folly ; the other
a malicious guest, who laughs iu his sleeve at the
foibles of his liost and his fellow guests,

Among his othei" poetical productions are some
few excellent Idylles, and a great many occasion-
al pieces, which, as relating to some pohtical
events, and frequently addressed to persons stand-
ing at the helm of public afTaii-s, form valuable
materials for elucidating the history of that pe-
riod, being expressive either of the general feel-
ing, or of the author's own, which appears to
be con-ect, and by no means parasitical. His
well-known integrity protects him against any in-
vidious imputation.

He has translated agreat deal iu verse and in prose.
In verse, some few Odes of Pindar, and nearly all
the Odes of Horace. These translations have not

, gince been equalled by any author, in strength and
fidehty. But particularly, one, which I think ad-
mirable, is a translation of Tacit\is. It surpasses

, any that has ever appeared in any European lan-
guage, iu consequence of the Polish idiom being
so similai- to the Latin in construction and capa-

MOBEllN rOET8. 211

bility of inversion — a circumstance which ren-
dered the approximation of the copy to the origi-
nal BO extremely close aud strikiug.

In prose his principal original work, valued more
than any of his literary efforts, is the History qf
Poland, in six volumes. In Uiis work he evident-
ly intended to rival Tacitus; and, if he did not
equal, he at least came very near his model. He
is the best historian of Poland, as Karaiuzia is
now of Russia. The works of neither are yet
finished. Nanisze^vicz wrote only the history of
the Piasts ; that of the JagcUons, and the elective
kings he left untouched. He made a rich collec-
tion of materials relating to both epochs ; but his
death, in 1796, cut hira off in the midst of his vaat
undertaking. The members of the Society of
Science labour now conjointly to complete this
history, — a work which entitles him to the first
rank among the historians of modern Euroiie. *

' The literary results of this patriotic union, presented to
the Society on one of its last meetings, as ready lor puhhca-
tion, are. The History of the Poles previous to the introduc-
tion of Christianity, by Czaykowski, Prelate of I.owicz ;
The Rejgn of the two Vladislaus's, father and son, the first
Kings of the Jagellonian Line, (from 1386 to I+tfi,) by '
Lukas Golembiowski, Librarian to the Prince CKartoryaki;
The Reign of Sigismund IH. (from 1587 to 1632,) by
Niemcewicz, already printed in three volumes ; The Iteign
of Vladislaus !V. (from 163S to l648,) by Kwiatkowaki ;
The Reign of Jolin Casimir, (fiom 16*9 to 1668,) b_y Kra-

31S

lettehs on poland.

To give you a more satisfactory idea of the two
Polish writers, Kraslcki and Naruszewicz, let me
adduce a parallel drawn between them by Dino-
chowski, the biographer of the first. *

" Poland happened," says he, " to possess at one
time two writers, whose works both afforded de-
light iu reading, and presented an ample topic for

iewaki. Several other perioda of bistory, that are yet in a
state of preparation, or have been promised by men of lite-
Key repute, are. The Reign of Sigismund 1. (from 1507 lu
1548>) by Count Ossolinski; The History of all the Kings
of the Jagellonian Lineage, (the whole period from 1586 to
1S72,) by Prince Adam Czartoryskj, Palatine ; The Reign
o£ Henry de Valois and Stephen Butori, (from 1573 to
1586,) by Count Tarnowski ; The Reign of Michael Wisnio-
Triecki and of John Sobieski, (from 1669 to 169G,) by Pro-
fcssorBentkowski; The Reigns of Augustus II. and III. (from
1697 to 1764.,) by Pi-azmowaki, Bishop of Plock ; The His-
tory of the Cossacks, by Radziminski; The History of the
Polish Legions in Italy, Spain, &c. by Szaniawski. Gene-
ral Dombrowskij who was their leader, has also been iheii-
historian. In virtue of a clause in his wilJ, the Society of
Friends of Science were put in poBsession of the MSS. of
this renowned warrior.

* Of Dmochowski I have made mention among the

minor Polish poets. He has written a translation of the Iliad,

I vhich, in elegance, is equal to that of Pope's, and in close-

s to the original excelled only by the German of Vosa,

— The Epistles of Horace, — Vh-gil's j^neid, — Milton'g Pa-

i radise Regained, and some parts of the Paradise Lost. Hid

, original, and a very elegant poem, is entitled, " The Art

of Poetry."

MODEBN POETS.

SIS

discussiou, and to whom the Poles looked up as the
great ornaments of their literature. TTiese were
Naniszewicz and Krasicki. The one was educat-
ed in a learned but austere ecclesiastical society ;
the other trained up in a jiolite school of the world.
Their minds being exposed to very different in-
fluence, each received a pecuhar impression, which
was afterwards manifested in their writings.
Hence the one is serious, and, even in his endea-
vours at humour, inanimate ; the other sprightly
and engaging. Botli were endowed by natuse
with extraordinary talents ; but the one trusted
more to labour, the other to his natural genius.
The one excelled in learning ; the other in striking
sallies. The one immerged himself in the deep
sea of erudition ; the other played lightly along the
smiling regions of fancy. In his early years Kra-
sicki acquired an exquisite delicacy of taste ; Na-
niszewicz, when yet at school, was habituated to
a swoln and bombastical composition, so prevalent
in his time, a fault of which he could never entirely
divest himself. Hence the first is always elegant
and natural ; the last tumid and constrained.
The ascendency of Naniszewicz as a poet, which
was in the commencement extremely great, de-
creased gradually in the opinion of men of taste,
while that of his prose writings augmented. Kra-
sicki's renown, on the conti-ary, though his writ-
ings in prose are clever and captivating, rests

ai4

LETTERS ON POLAND.

chiefly on his poetry. Both possessed of superior
powers, and living on friendly terms with each
other, they are tlie jffide uf their nation, and form
splendid luminaries in its literature. Yet Nani-
szewicz win be known to posterity as the translator
of Tacitus, and as a historian ; Krasicki as a poet.
NaruBzewicz will be in the hands of the learned :
Krasicki in the hands of all."

A poet of strong feeling, and of a still stronger
imagination, is Kniaxnin. He was born in Li-
thuania, and educated in the College of the Jesuits
at Witebsk, of which, in liis writings, he bitterly
complains, asserting that, in consequence uf the
ill-directed system of study in the schools of that
Order, he " lost the golden season of his early age,
and the labour of sleepless nights wasted on ii'k-
acme and unprofitable trifles." He left.nothing in
prose ; all his writings being poetry — and this only
of one kind, namely, lyric and elegiac. The slight-
est incidents of life were apt to escite his poetic
spirit, and kindle his bold imagination. His ac-
tive sensibility made liim often a prey to self-
invented woes which corroded his soul. This
gloomy trait, however, belonged only to his private
life, and not to his poems, for the strain of these
evince them to have been the momentary insinra-
tions of his happier hours, under the influence of
joy. His pining grief he used to conceal in the
Banctnary of his own bosom, or of liis sympathis-

MODRRN POETS.

3lf

ing friends. " In his hours of relief which," he
informs us, " the Divine Castalian Sisters alone
were able to afford him," he resembles Bums
more tbau any other British poet, and would re-
semble still more, had he at times inculcated that
" Man was made to mourn ;" or had he not been
polished by learning, which jier^wtuaUy guai'ded
liim from that daring wildness of thought and (rf
expression, so often laid to the charge of the poeti*
cal effusions of the mdettered Scottish Bard. la.
his Bacchanalian swigs he breathes the atmosphere ■
erf Bums's " highly sublimated essence of animal
existence." Both seem, at their outset, to have
been imconscious of the natural poetical gifts with
which they were endowed ; wliich, though check-
ed In the one by poverty, in the other by mo*-
nastic pedantry, biirst on a sudden, and as if by
chance. Burns was a ploughman, and says of
liimself, " The Poetical Genius of my country
found me, as the Prophet Elijah did Elisha, at the
plough, and threw her inspiring mantle over me."
Kniaznin again says, in a classic strain of a scholar,
"TheMuse found me on a green wold, on the banks '
of the stream Wzda rolling its eddies into the
Dwina." The want of a learned education compel-
led Burns to limit his poetical powers to short ly-
rical pieces, in which he is inimitable. He has ndt ^
attempted longer poems, where his genius might,
l»erhape, have miscarried. Kniaznin, on the other

216

LETTEBS ON POLAND.

hand, in attempting longer poems, exceDed more
than in short ones ; for the stores of his extensive
knowledge and the capacity of his aoul required
room and expansion. From these causes liis
Salhon, a poem of several cantos, is esteemed the
best of his writings, because its structure is on a
larger scale. Tlie title is owing to the incident
which gave rise to the poem itself, and which was
the following : At a time when the invention of
balloons engaged the curiosity of Europe, several
persons, living in a beautiful but retired country
seat, joined in the pastime of constructing a bal-
loon. Such an undertaking naturally gave occa-
aion to various different preparations. Meetings
were held — ^the debating parties were of different
ages — the fair sex graced the council — and each
individual was invested with a peculiar dignity
and office. The novelty of the enterprise itself —
- tiie variety of characters concerned in it — the
pineans proposed and put into execution for effect-
ring their purpose — did not fail to excite tlie ima-
rjioation of om* poet in a high degree. And
Fjthough the final result (as I have been informed
rhy one of the members themselves) did not en-
p.tirely answer the society's sanguine expectations,
ffyet Kniaznin, to whom was allotted the office of
r|K>et on the occasion, ably accompIish<^<l iiis part
the task ; and immortalized fht- enterprise,
and the individuals concerred. }■ the poem of

MOPERN poets; 317

The Ballom, Which, by its length and dignified
flow, borders on the epic. In it the real persons
and real characters, under their temporary titles
and fictitious names^ became an 'airy substance;
and mere ideal beings. The singular origin «f
the poem may be a sufficient proof of Knia^s-
nin's creative powers, and under what varied
shapes the magic workings of his genius were
able to manifest themselves, by ennobUng an^
spiritualizing every thing by its niagic touch w-
to poetry.

Besides this his principal poem, mere exist a
great many lyrical pieces by him of various length
— the effusions of his soul on different occasions.
Of his lyrical drama, " The Gypsies," I shall take
particular notice in treating of the dramatic poets;
He, like .Petrarch and Tasso, was possessed of
sensibility in the highest degree ; and, like them^
he fell in love with a beauty far iabove his humble
station«*-a circumstance which deranged his men-
tal faculties, and terminated in his death. In a
country church-yard near Pulawy, a splendid mo-
nument, erected to his memory by Prince Czarto-
ryski, points but where his mortal remains repose.

From tills lyrical poet let us turn to Trem-
becki, a contemplative poet. His early years
passed in activity and adulation of the great, on
whom he lavished praises, which are beautiful in
themselves, and would, perhaps, reflect some por-

S18

LETTERS OK POLAND.

tion of celebrity on their author, had they been
deservedly bestowed. His principal poem ia So-
2>hwwka, BO called from the splendid couittry seat
belonging to Count Potocld, in the Ukraine, where
he devoted the maturer years of his life to the
contemplation of human existence, and ita immor-
tality in an after state, embodying the results of
his thoughts in tender and flowing verse— channs
in a high degree ]>ecidiar to his fswcinating ixietry.
This poem, on so dignified a theme, has been ele-
gantly translated into French by the Count de la
Garde, and splendidly printttl at Rome along with
the Polish original.

In the last stage of his life, Trembecki fell into
a misanthropic state of mind, and spent the re-
mainder of his existence in solitary retirement.
Every thing around him appeared poor, though
fortune had placed him beyond the reach of po-
verty. An admirer of his having visited him, re-
lates, that he had nothing about him to cheer liis
solitude but a Cossack boy, his oidy company ;
with him he used to play chess, or listened to his
songa, accompanied with the music of a torban, *
In tlie room where he lived, (this visit happened
in tlie summer season.) swallows and sjiarrows

•A sort of large guitar, but with a greater number of
strings — anciently commDn in I'oland — uBually acrompa-
iiied with tlie song and dance. , , .

UOD£EN POETS.

S19

bnilt their nests undisturbed ; and their hospit-
able host is said to have known the genealogy and
diifer^it families of his feathered visitors.

It is melanclioly to thiiili — and history bears
too frequent testimony to the fact — that superior
qualities shoidd be found united with so morbid a
constitution as that of Trembecki, and that real
genius should border so nearly on insanity, .is ap-
peared in Kiiiaznin, who, iu the range of his bold
fancy, was unequalled by any of our poets.

I shall close this account of the illustrious dead
with some notice of a poet whose works, though he
is alive, may be considered as posthumous, siuce,
according to his own declaration, their number
and his literary career had terminated by the in-
firmities of his declining years. The poet here
meant is Karpinski. In him the glory of ancient
pastoral writers has been revived, with the addi-
tional lustre of an elegiac tenderness and heart-
felt sympathy, by which he has connected actual life
with the world of imagination. Though he is
commonly spoken of only as a writer of pastorals,
yet, considering the range of ideas which he em-
braces, to design him merely as such would be to
confine his fame within too nai-row boundaries.
He gives an ideal picture of the habitual opinions
and feelings of all classes of his countrymen, or
rather of the workings of human bosoms at large,
as they manifest themselves amongst a particular

LETTERS ON POLAND,

people. Other poets knew solely the character-
istic peculiarities of the one or the other class of
society ; their conceptions, consequently, were but
pai-tial, and too exclusii-e. Karpinski alone stamp-
ed the universal mind of his nation upon his
works : and in this chiefly consists the distinguish-
ing excellence and originality of his poetry. Se-
veral of his lyrico-pastoral poems, on which prin-
cipally his literary fame rests, were translated in-
to Grerman. I shall pass over his minor writings,
such as his " Historical Account of the Indians,"
and his translation of Racine's Athalia, &c. which,
though ex[;ellent, only swell his volumes, and add
but little to Iiis fame as an original writer. His
Translation of the Psalms, however, surpassing
all the former in elegance and energy, forms an
important accession to his renown.

Among the living poets, there are three x>ai*ti-
cularly deserving of notice, Niemcewicz, Woro-
uicz, and Brodzinski. I shall, however, treat of
them with brevity, as their works will undoubt-
edly be farther augmented, and their present li-
terary reputation thus receive a new increase. It
being at present impossible to anticipate their fu-
ture labours, any endeavour to estimate their ta-
lents and merit would be as incomplete as pre-
mature. I will, therefore, confine myself to an
outline of what they have already accomi)lished.

Nienicuwicz might be placed at the head of our

MODEIIN I'OETS.

231

I
I

living autliors, and considered as the Nestor
among them ; both his advanced age and bis nu-
merous works, like so many splendid achieve-
ments, entitle him to that venerable appellation.
There never before existed an author in Poland,
whose .rorks were so numerous, and their sub-
jects so various. On whatever department of po-
lite writing he touched, he eminently excelled, and
would, perhaps, have produced unparalleled mas-
terpieces, had not bis vereatile genius been too
eager in embracing at once so much within its po-
tent grasp, and thus, instead of concentrating his
powers, lessened their brlUiant beams by disusing
them over too wide a horizon.

The departments of literature in which he
particularly excells are history, tragedy, co-
medy, novels, songs, elegies, fables, tales, sa-
tires, and translations from foreign languages ;*

* Hia principal literary productiona are. Historical Songs,
mentioned above ; the History of Sigismund IH., in three
volumes, of which I shall subjoin an analysis; the Life of
Washington, with whom the author was familiar during his
exile in America; Fables and Talea, in two voiucQes ; Tra^
gedy of Vladislaua of Wariia ; Cmnedies — The Deputy's H&-
turn — Egoist — Mr Nowina; Dramas — Kochanowakij a Po-
lish Poet — Zbigniew, a Polish Duke ; Novels — The Two
Sieciechs, a Comparative View of Ancieut and Modem Po-
lish Manners— Leyba and Szora, ii Picture of the Polish
Jews. His translations from the English are, Johnson's

222 LETTERS ON POLAND.

and every wher^ he is entitled to occupy, if

not the highest, certainly a very eminent eta-

[ tion, in the attaining of which, amidst such a

f niunber and variety of composition, none but

I'inen of extraordinary powers can be expected

I to succeed. He led mostly an active life in pub-

' Tic, and evinces in his writings how intimately

conversant he had become witli the private as well

as the public concerns of his country. Both the

course of \ne life and the tenor of hie works are

^larked by superior patriotic zeal, — a quality

which makes his person venerable in the eyes of

the nation, his writings the most popular, and

best fitted for exciting an universal sympathy.

The literary fame of Jl^oroaicx, Bishop of Cra-
cow, springs from two different sources, bis pulpit
eloquence and his poetical productions. His 6er-
[ Boons excell in a boldness of concejition akin to
1 those of the German Herder, and seem to be the
Instantaneous emanations from the pure source of
Lxeligious morality, — the more impressive, as they
are couched in an energetic and almost dithy-
rarabic language, like that of the prophets of old.
His poetry is but of one kind — heroic, relating to
the chief revolutions in Poland. The language

&B«sc1as — Gray's Elegy — Dryden's Alexander's Feaat —
FVope's Rape of tlie Lock— Mallefs William and Margaret.
' He has lately published the Memoirs of Ancient Poland, in

Ee volumes.

MODERN POETS.

3^3

he uses is a regular, dignified, and full flow of
bold expressions, and loftiness of pathos.

Hia poem of TAe Sybil is acknowledged hither-
to to be the finest specimen of our historical poetry"
TTie poet, as if by the spell of a powerful neci-o-
raancer, conjures up, in succession, the ancient
kings of Poland from their silent graves, bids
them look on the desolate face of that country
which they had once made powerful by their
Bwords, and happy by the wisdom of their laws.
The words put into the mouth of Casimir the
Crreat, when he looks up from the grave, " /* this
that land .'" ai-e big with fate, and as sublime as
ComeiUe's " Q«'i7 mourutr and his instantly
sinking into his tomb at the sight of havoc and
desolation, is an act as strikingly expressive of
unutterable woe as the spreading of the veil on
Agamemnon's face at the sacrifice of Iphigenia,
his daughter. The name and origin of this poem
were owing to tlie author's visit to the Temple of
the Sybil in Pulawy, where, at the sight of the
ancient Polish monuments collected and carefully
preserved there, his feelings and imagination were
so powerfully excited. Another poem of his of
superior merit, and thought to be only a fragment,
*>r perhaps canto of an epic, is the Diet of Wis-
Um, where Casimir tlie Great is represented as
giving laws to the Poles. The poet admirably
pourtrays, in few hut happy strokes, the dignity

L>24

l.KT'rKlt8 ON POLAND.

of that national assembly, — the countenances and
the apparel of the representatives sent to it from
different provinces, — ami especially the hardy race
of the Sarmatian warriors, who, careless of the in-
clemency of the weather, covered with the skins
of leopards and tigers, seated on horseback with
their spears in their hands, and the Tartar cap-
tives chained behind tbem, were then, after the
turmoils of so many wars, about to taste, for the
first time, the sweets of peace. In all his poems
he is throughout historical ; but his history is not
a skeleton frame-work of dry events, but a living
and bold phantasmagoria. Niuie of the Polish
poets ever possessed in a greater degree than Wo-
ronicz the " Os Magna Somifin vw" of Horace,
and the regular and sublime dif>nity of Milton's
Paradise.

BrothinsM is a young aiithir; yet his superior
literary talents and the popularity of his works
ali-eady entitle him to constitute a Knk in the se-
ries of the most eminent Polish authors. Last
year lie published two volumes of miscellaneous
poems. Ancient legendary lore is their chief
subject, and forms their distinguishing features,
Old national aistoms and opinitma, both of the
higher classes and of the peasantry, are beauti-
fully delineated in rhythmical tales. The tales of
Wiejtlaw nnd Oldina are the mo^t gi-aceful and
pathetir : the elegy of the Leglonisf in Italy, the

MODERN POETS.

S25

most affecting. It is a sweet patriotic dream, in
which the memory of a Polish soldier indulges
with pensive delight, to whom " the sweet sense
of home is sweetest." Karpinaki was the first,
and Brodzinski is the next who knows how to
touch most effectually the inmost strings of the
human heart, and swell it into tender sympathetic
tears over another's woe or another's weal ; for
with him happiness also has its share of tears.
His poetry is simple and unassuming, the offspring
rather of feehng than of intellect ; not consisting
in the splendoui* of gorgeous expression ; the ideas
are its essential attributes. He is the most ori-
ginal author in manner as well as in matter. All
his ideas are cast in a peculiar mould, and every
one has its national turn. They are the aggre-
gate of feelings cuiTent among the nation, charac-
terising its history, and its popular songs their
richest repositories. He seems to have chiefly
formed his taste upon this sort of poetry ; at least
he was the first who, by numerous ti'anslations
made from different Sclavonic idioms, brought the
aboriginal minstrelsy under the cognizance of his
countrymen. He has, besides, made many trans-
lations from ancient and modem languages, the
principal ones are those of Sir Walter Scott's Lay
of the Last Minstrel, and Renouard's tragedy of
the Templars. The cast of his genius is some-
what akin to that of Sir Walter Scott and of

336

I.ETTEBS ON POLAND.

Godiie ; but he has less imagiiiatiou thuu the for-:
mer, and more conciseness than the latter. His
turn of mind is rather elegiac. He exrells also in
prosaic composition. His Treatise on Classic and
Bomantic Litei-ature, and his Letters on the Po-
lish, are both distingiushed by profundity of views
and novelty of observation, adorned with all tlie
graces of a natural and easy style.

The Theatre, when judiciously conducted, has
been considered to be a proper engine for correct-
ing vice by ridiculing it, and of polishing the
taste, by bringing it into tlie vicinity of classic
models. This was particiilarly necessary in Po-
land, where monastic education had overwhelmed
I literature with weeds, and choked up every use-
fill native fruit. King Stanislaus gave every en-
couragement to theatrical representations, and in
his views he was seconded by the eidightened
zeal of Prince Czartoryski, wlio enriched the in-
fant stage with several valuable national pieces
of his own, principally comedies. The theatre
soon received an additional supply from the works
of the actors themselves, Bielawski and Bogus-
lawski. Other authors, like Zablocki, Lipinski,
Osinski, translated or imitated the chef iVwuvres
of Moliere, Corneille, Racine, &c. witli so much
discernment and taste, that they might pass for
indigenous productions. Niemcewicz enriched the
Polish stage with six original pieces, above enu-

DRAMATIC LITEllATUUE.

237

inerated amongst his other works. Kropinski
wrote tlie original tragedy of Ludgarda ; Felineki
wrote tliat of Queen Barbara. Wenzyk wrote
two, Glinski and Boleslaus. Hofman wrote Bo-
leslaus the Bold. Slowacki wrote Mendock King
of Lithuania. Dembowski wrote the tragedy of
Wanda, a fabulous Polish princess ; all national
pieces possessing great merit, though in dilTerent
degrees, and often successfully performed upon the
stage.

In general, agricultural and pastoral nations
like the Sclavonians seem not to have much scope
either for tragedy or comedy : their Kfe ie too iso-
lated, their minds too composed. A constant
converse with uniform external nature makes their
character peaceable, and the tendency of their pur-
suits innocent. Their want of acquaintance with
the foibles common to refined society disqualifies
them for intrigues, as well as for the conception
of truly comic characters, — imfits them also for
the sarcastic sneers which break out in satiric
bitterness. Their satires, if they have any, are
chiefly directed against extraneous imported vices,
or, if directed against their national community,
want the sting of malignity. Their character and
their sequestered lives being adverse to all violent
bursts of passion, unfit them for revenge or savage
cruelty, which render, accordingly, the field both oF
tragedy and comedy among them very sterile and

LETTERS ON POLAND.

unproductive. Hence the Sdavoiiians, strictly
speaking, have as yet no national theatre at all.
Their principal nations indeed possess some dra-
matic pieces, but they are mostly imitations of fo-
• reign models ; or, if original, however excellent
they may be, their amount is too small to consti-
tute a separate Sclavonian school of drama distinct
from the English, French, German, and Italian.

What 1 have thus in general adverted to ap-
plies iu particular to Poland, where a greater num-
ber of dramatic specimens are extant than in any
Sclavonian coimtry. The Muse of Tragedy, which
alone has a legitimate title to form the national
dramatic school of any people, had no rich harvest
there, and the little she had is almost exhausted.
The pages of the Polish annals were not stained
with the blood of their kings and their mutinous
nobles. The Polish government was free, frank,
and merciftil, — better known for its indulgent for-
giveness of trespasses, than its severity in inflict-
ing punishment. The Polish kings and nobles
neither fell victims to the practices of false traitors,
nor bent their heads under the bloody »ce, — those
who did not die a peaceful natural death, died in
defence of their country on the field of honour.
King Vladislaus fell at Warna, in a battle against
the Turks, shielded to the last by his faithful sub-
jects. Zolkiewski fell at Cecora, and many others
met the same glorious fate. But such disasters.

DRAMATIC LTTERATTBE.

229

^H IV xiei

^B trans

^B recen

^H in hii

however sad in theii- catastrophe, being of too in-
cidental a natnre, offer little room for intrigue and
complication, and are too unwieldy for the conti-
nuance of a ramified plot like that of a tragedy
which is to be conducted through five acts, and
ought to operate with contiuuaHy increasing effect
on the minds of the audience. Nevertheless, such
unpromising incidents were, for want of others,
occasionally made the subject of ti-agedies, in which
the ingenuity of the authors reaped more bonoiu-
than their representation applause upon the stage.
Where there are no deeply meditated treacherous
designs — no satanic intrigues : Where there is no
putting out of eyes — ^uo cutting of throats — ^no tor-
tures — no poisonings, such as often occurred among
other European nations, and even among some of
the wilder Sclavonic tribes, there is little or no
scope for national tragedy founded on the incidents
of history, the most fertile and appropriate source
for such compositions. The Polish poets felt the
absence of these ; aud as often as tliey endeavour
to erect themselves on the cothurnus, they are in
want of poison and the stileto. In order to ob-
tain these tragic implements, they are often com-
pelled to disfigure the subject of their story.
Where the crime is only a matter of suspicion, they
transform it into a certainty. Felinski has but
recently had recourse to this uneandid expedient
in his tragedy of Queen Barbara, the wife of Si-

LXTTKBS ON POLAKB.

gismuiid Angustus, one of our most romaiitii-
■kings. He made the Queen Bona positively
guilty of poisoning her daughter-in-law, though
tliis was a mere rumour, founded on the dislilte
Iwhich the queen-motlier bore to her, and on the
liatred which the nation bore to the former.

This inexperience of tlie Poles in the bloody
-fiimals of crime mid violence, produces another ef-
fect nnfavoiirabie to their tragic poetry, namely,
"that the pictures of crime are not energetically
4ielineated — are seldom original, and mostly of a
declamatory cast. The most striking passages,
where remorse, terror, and pity are pourtrayed,
ore evidently rather strong effoi-ts of theintellectual
powers of the authors tlian the results of deepfeeling,
and thorough experience of the sufferings of hu-
man nature. They ai-e, in a word, the tragics not
of nature but of art. For this reason, Polish
tragedies mostly incline towards those of the
French School. They possess the correctness
and elegance of the French masterpieces, toge-
ther with their unnatural stiffness. They do not
transgress against any of the three unities of ac-
tion, time, and place. The free, wild, and bold
fusions of the mens divina of Shakespeare are
admired on the stage, but none of tlie national
tragic iK)et8 have succeeded in producing any
' thing similar. But to require any nation to have
a Shakespeare is rather to require too much.

DRAJJATIC I^ITESATUAE.

981

Tbvrt' is none but one people in Europe which
has its own; nor, perhaps, will the world ever
produce such another paragon.

Of all the Polish tragedies, that of GU7t»ki has
the most national features, and is characterized
by the greatest originality, Glinski was a distin-
guished general, whom disappointed ambition con-
verted into a traitor to his country. He deserted
to the Russians, over whom he had often gained
signal victories. As a reward of his treachery
the Czar entinisted him with the command oi his
army : he then entered the provinces of his own
native land, spreading terror and devastation.
At last, becoming conscious of his giult, and r&-
pentant, he meditated a reconciliation with his
king and country. But in the act of accomplish-
ing it, unfortunately for liimseK, his plan was de-
tected. The irritated Czar ordered liira to be
thrown into a dungeon at Smolensko, and his
eyes to be put out. There lie languished several
long years — his daughter with him — his only
child, and his only solace. Trepka, her betroth-
ed lover, contrived to bribe the guards, with the
view of rescuing Glinski and his daughter, but ■
this scheme also was detected. The Russians,
taking hold of him, delivered him over to suffer
by tortiu-e the most cruel lingering death. The
struggle of Glinslti, under Uie consciousness 06
liis guilt, is admirably delineated by the author ;

LETTERS ON POLAND.

and the mtrepidity of Trepka, when brought be-
fore the Czar to answer for his plot, is unexam-
\ pled, and the strength of his republican inind is
I rendered still more impressive, when placed in
I JuxtapositioD with the slavish subjection of the
1 Gzar Basil's attendance. Mr Wenzyk, the author
I irf this superior tragedy, availed himself of the
, |tttriotic feelings predominant among the Poles
1 during the recent period, which he collected, as it
^ V^xe, into a focus, bearing with intensity upon
JuB production. This ground has been thus ho-
I'lDourably occupied: and whoever shall in future
thread upon it will probably find much difficulty
to appear new and original.

From these general and detailed remarks on the
subject of the Dramaturgia in Poland, it is evi-
dent that the character of the Polish nation, with
respect to the stage, is neither strictly comic nor
strictly tragic, but rather melo-dramatic. Liter-
ary productions written for the Polish stage
should, as I conceive, always wear the features of
melo-dramas ; that is, reflect rural life in its va-
riety of forms — make the mind appear rather
cheerful than malignant — and rather gently toucli
the heart than convulse it. Our dramatic literature
will, therefore, be that of the IdyUes and Geor-
gicH, somewhat of the same stamp with Ramsay's
Gentle Shepherd ; and in following a similar
train of ideas, some of our poets have actually

DRAMATIC LITEBATUSE.

succeeded in a wonderful degree. Instances of it
are Kniaznin, in hia Gypsies, a rural drama ex-
hibiting the unsettled life of that vagrant people :
and Niemi;ewicz in his Georgical drama of Ko-
chanowski, tdready alluded to.

But, in considering the deficiencies of our dra^
matic literature, which, as it appears to me, have
sprung up rather from the erroneous choice <rf
manner than from the want of suitable matter,
should you ask me the question. What ought pro-
perly to be the elements and the distinguishing fea-
tures of the Polish dramatic productions? 1 woiild
answer, the same whicli are prominent in the three
Polish national Dances, the Polonaise, IVIazur, and
Cracoviack. However whimsical the reply may ap-
pear, I cannot help thinking it a just one. No
where does the character of the Poles appear in
its piu-e and strongly marked features more than
in these dances, and the features must be genuine*
their manifestation being so inconscious. If the
ingredients of the real character of a people are
requisite in a dramatic production, to impart to
it a genuine national character, (as I think they
are indispensable,) then these three Polish dances
contain every thing necessary for exhibiting the
characteristics of the Polish di'amatic literature.

Observe the processional parade of the Polo-
iiaise — the stateliness of its march — the dignified
grace of its figures — the sli'p, slow, but neither

334

LETTERS ON POLAND,

Stiff nor heavy, keeping time to the majeBtk
cadence of a Bolemii music- — and you may fancy
yoa see before you the ancient Polish nobility,
with all the " pomp and circumstance" of its re-
publico-aristocratical dignity and pride. It is a
dance wortLy of those who made kings, or sat
themselfes upon the throne. Is there not in such
an exterior a hint for splendid national dramas ?
Yet I doubt whether there is any foimdation for
tragedy. All here is open and frank, nothing
concealed, no treachery lurking with its poignard
or it8 poison. The only lethal weapon is the
sword, to repel offence, or to punish instdt, as is
befitting the free and the brave. On every fece
yon may read that Scottish proverb, " Never
torn the back to the friend or the foe." No
doubt, excursions may also be occasionally made
into the field of tragedy, but I apprehend the open
and guileless character of the people promises no
very rich harvest. *

• To wliat degree a. dance can be connected with the li-
ter^ute of drsnut, the Polunaiae of Ogineki, the mueic £or

hich is annexed in the Appendix, may serve as an illustra-
tion. Its origin borders on romance; its influence was that
of contributing to a tragic catastrophe. The circumstances
were the following :—A lady, with whom Count Oginski
had fallen in love, preferred dte hand of his rival laitor.
He, abandoned to tlie excess of his sorrow, requested, as the
leaat favour from her, to dance with him the first Polonaise
on the nuptial assembly,— which whs agreed to. During the

DRAMATIC l.lT««ATl35tE. flgft

Agaiu, look to tbi^ light and airy steps of the
rural Mazur. The vai-iety of its figures are lilce

dance, the pathetic solemnity of the music, which was tua
owii composition, or ratlier the effusion of his own Buffering
soul, having iwightened his aggrieved seosibiltty, he imme'
diately aX^ dieappeived trom tiie side of his \MAy, and shat
himself, f

Considering the nature of dances in general, to see a
man in serious mood asking the favour of a dance before
his death, appears unaccountable and even incongruoiu ;
and were it not an historical fact, our metaphysics would
deny it. It must, however, be coni'essedj that a dance
which admitted of being performed a few minates bciVn
life's dissolution, and did not lessen, but rather strengthened
the resolution to die, must, on this very account, be different
from a dissipated giddy amusement, and must bear some-
thing sublime in its features. And, in fact, nobody ctnt
think of it otherwise, whoever has had an opportunity af
witnessing its pompous train, moving on in true nationd
style, and with true national countenances and costume ; who
has seen a row of thirty couples, or more, the most distin-
guished one being at its bead, parading one after another in
a proud yet attentive courtesy, — where old and young are
mixed together, the one animated by the solemn measure of
the music, the other checked in their buoyancy, in order to
compos one congruous whole, and all appearing with equal
propriety and with equal grace , fi . serious, and yet a pleas*
ing spirit of joy rules over all- TOn witnessing this, I think
every one must be impressed MUi an idea how far national
amusements are aiit to assume liistorical features, to become
fit representatives of tlie character of a people, and to afford
inatructive hints for their tlieatrical representations.

When die papers of the Count were examined, different

236 LETTERS 0*1 POLAND.

the inextricable windings of the Cretian laby-
rinth ; and still, amid such apparent confusion, the
regular and joyous spirit of harmony reigns.
This dance is peculiar to the Masovian peasant-
ry, and strikingly exhibits the intelligent charac-
ter for which they are noted. And does not this
dance, meanwhile, contain elements for national
pantomimes ? Many dances peculiar to other na-
tions appear stiff, unmanageable, and even comic ;
the Polish are distinguished by all the charms of
variety and grace. The life of the Poles being
nomadical and rural, has given them scope for light
bodily exercises. By means of these they acquired
a degree of pleasing agility, so that their pastimes
and their amusements have naturally assumed
many traits resembling those of the ancient Greeks,
and are, in like manner, liable to melt easily into
ideal forms.

sperimena of lyrical poetry, set to music, were fatind, ex-
pressing the sufferings of his mind. One song of his became
popular in Poland, Tliis Eong and this music are the only
specimens extant to commemorate his fate and his talent ;
but they have so forcibly engaged the sympathies of his
countrymen, that the memory of his name is, like a phoenix,
continually renewed from the ashes of his mortal ii-ame. He
is the Werter of Poland, and waits for a Polish Goethe to
touch him nith the magic tvand of his genius, either in dra-
ma or in novel. He descended from an ancient noble famU
ly, which was a branch of a Duke reigning in a put uf Li-
thuania. !

DRAMATIC LITERATUBE.

837

• Finallj', there come groups of the Cracovian
peasantry. They have a dance, called, from their
own name, Cracoviack. They come, youths and
maidens, hand in hand. They are mountaineers,
and lightly glide, like the mountain breezes, ovei?
hills and valleys. They approach at the measure
of music, but its strain is not sufficient for the
exuberance of their joy — they must unite their
own voices, and wing their steps with music and
song. The song they must address to some ob-
ject of their esteem or affection — ^to a venerable
aged sire, or a generous landlord. They wheel
once or twice round in a fairy circle, and return
again to sing his praise either singly or in chorus,
Their song is extemporaneous. Even here, do
not they again exhibit the traits of enjoyments as
giddy and as graceful as those of the Greeks,
the sportive children of nature, during their na-
tional festivals ? Is not this capable of becoming
a rich and beautiful subject for national operas ?
These Satumalian sports are the intermediate
ties by which the peasantry is approximated to
the nobility, and the nobility descends towards the
peasantry. Upon such occasions there is room
for all natural and conventional human feelings.
Dignity and esteem — benignity and gratitude —
condescension and affection — may have their scope
and tlieir fiUl play. The lively yet graceful mo-

S38

LETTEBS ON POLAND.

tions, and the glee of life, make such scenes lyri-
cal and enchanting. ^ '

Some Polish writers have, indeed, availed them-
selves of these advantages, and tranaforming the
Cracoviacka into dramatic pieces, contributed much
to the amusement of the puhhc. Easy dialogues,
songs, music, and tlie dance, are their constituent
parts and their principal channs. Kaniinski, the
actor in Leopol, has enriched the stage with many
of these delightful productions. Some few dra-
matic pieces of Klodzinski present similar pleas-
ing' characteristics of the ideahzed rural amuse-
ment3,and habitual feelings of the PoUsh peasantry
iu unison with those of the nobility. In such per-
formances the character of the nation is faithfully
depicted ; and in fact nothing can be better adapted
to excite a general interest than the national fea-
tures of a people revealed before its own eyes. AH
that sort of interest which the novels of the present
reigning Scottish novelist are capable of exciting,
when fitted up for the stage, is to be referred to this
and no other source. They exhibit a picture of
manners, habits, and opinions, common to the peo-
ple at large ; they must, consequently, produce a
delightful effect.

Now, casting a retrospective glance over the
names of the principal Pohsh authors, and those
mentioned under the head of the dramatic branch
of hterature, you will, I think, be someu'hat sur-

DBAMATIC LITEBATURE.

239

prised at tiieir numbers ; and really when 1 call
to recollection all the efforts lately made in the
difiWeut departments of literature and science, I
dare assert, without the fear of contradiction from
any well informed person, that, with the excep-
tion of England, Germany, and France, there is
at this moment scarcely any country where there
is so great a current of scientific and philosophi-
cal ideas, and so much literary activity as there is
in Poland. Literature continually receives these I
accessions from the zeal with which it is cherished
by the Polish nobiUty, who, after the dismember- /
ment of their countiy, being seldom admitted to '.
public employments from political motives, direct-
ed their whole activity to the cultivation of science
and poetry. The same names which at one time
were celebrated in tlie camp and in the senate
we find now shining conspicuous in the walks of
intellectual and imaginative pin-suits. Literature
having been the only secure path to renown left
for them, they proceeded on it with zeal and pa-
triotic affection, and at last became not only am-
bitious of literary attainments, but capable of ac-
quiring celebrity from them. For this reason,
numbers of writers have necessarily arisen, and
must daily increase. Among them many may be
found akin to the giant-sons of genius, and even
those who are reckoned inferior have their share
of merit and of excellence.

S40

LETTERS ON POLAND.

It ought here to be remarked, that this activity
in all the departments of literature has been much
fostered, and rendered still more universal, by the
liberality of the house of the Princes Czartoryskis,
who might be called the Medicis of Poland. At their
hospitable hearth men of letters, poets, and artists,
found a friendly reception. In short, there exists
ed within the last period no literary character in
Poland who had not, in one way or other, stood
connected with that illustrious house, by receiv-
ing encouragement, benefit, or support from it ;
and those who had not touched its threshhold,
seemed by that very circumstance to have been
doomed to mediocrity or oblivion.

In conclusion, I shall acquaint you, that even
the tender sex, destined to be the charm and hap-
piness of domestic life, have trodden in Poland
the path of the muses, and have decked their
temples with the wreathes of literary fame.

Ehzabeth Di-uzbacka was a distinguished
poetess. She had no learned education, but was
the gifted child of nature. Her native language,
for she knew no other, breathes sweetly in lier
harmonious xiupreteoding mellow strain. TThe
poetical effusions of her soid are like those of
Thomson in his Seasons, suggested by the differ-
ent aspects and evolutions of external nature.
She does not evince the same depth of thought,
but equals him in sensibility. Her poetry is di»-

FEMALE AUTHORS.

241

tinguished for simplicity, combined with all the
graces of feminine tenderness and gentle feeling.
She spent the earlier part of her life in rural re-
tirement, which she adorned by her contemplative
mind, without anticipating the possibility that
her musings shoidd ever be noticed by the public.
But their superior merit did not long remain con-
cealed. A collection of her poems was published
in 1752> and attracted general admiration. She
died in a convent at Tamow, to which she had
retired in her more advanced age. Her poetical
talents were in unison with morality, and her
prevalent enthusiasm in admiring the works
of nature with piety. Her poem on Spring
commences with the following simple and soft
imagery :

" O golden season, in child-like guise ! Thou
gladdening Spring ! Again thou comest, and love-
ly are thy smiles. Every thing becomes thy play-
ful innocence, whether to revive with warmth, or
chill with cold. Who would chide thee, when, in
thy hours of play, thou, with child-like irolic, now
makest the young green grass come forth, and
then hidest it with a mantle of snow."

Among the living female authors, the Princess
Czartoiyska now occupies the highest station.
Her first production was On the Gardens. Of
the principles displayed in it, application was made
in the embellisliments of the park and the envi-

242

LETTERS ON POLAND.

rons of Pulawy, the principal family seat, which
eventually became one of the finest country resi-
dences in Europe ; so much so, as to have afford-
ed to the famous French poet DeliUe a subject for
a beautiful episode, in his " Lea Jardins." And,
really, every thing there is in its own place, adorn-
ing or adorned ; and has an appropriate significa-
ISon, endeared by some particular thought or feel-
ing. It is a fit abode for the children of fancy,
taste, and contemplation.

I Her Highness's other two publications are both
entitled,The Pilgrim ofDobromilf andhothground-
ed on history ; the one on the annals of the Polish
Kings, the other on those of the celebrated men
in Poland. In both the historical narrative is on-
ly the foundation, and morahty the superstruc-
ture, admirably suited for affording amusing and
instructive reading to the lower classes, for whose
improvement they are chiefly intended. They
are accordingly accommodated to their eompre-
faeusion, being written in a style of simplicity
easier to conceive than to accomplish. By such a
course of reading the labouring classes will at
length become acquainted with the annals of their
own countiy ; and the more fanuliai- they become
with these, the more will they cling to the soil
' which they cultivate.

*' This work of the Pilgrim," says one of it8 re-

FEMALE ACTHOBS.

viewers,* " will pass from hand to hand — ^will be
understood and cherished on the banks of the
Pregel and the Oder, an well as amid the Carpa-
thian motmtains and the sands of Moravia. It
will wander far among the eastern provinces—*
will be read by the peaaantry of Volhinia, and at
the sources of the Niemen ; while in the envi-
rons of the Polota and Soza the prevalence of
the Russian dialect will perhaps make it unin-
telligible, except to the higher ranks. Every-
where it will be looked upon as a work dictated by
the generous sentiments of patriotism. AH who
formerly had a common native land will receive
it with a feeling of the utmost gratitude ; and as
soon as reading shall become general among our
peasantry, the labour of the Pilgrim, and his
noble purposes of infusing generous principles in-
to the bosoms of the people, will, no doubt, he
crowned with success." Human nature appears
ennobled by so warm an interest taken by the
high in the welfare of tlie low, in affording them
not only protection, counsel, and support, but al-
so useful knowledge. The patriotic virtues of
that illustrious lady claim other praises : they are
known and felt by every Pole. I leave them en-
shrined where they are best appreciated.

Her Highnesa's daughter, the Princess of Wir^.

■ Professor Lelcwel, in the Waraovian Memoirsj July

i8iy.

S44

LETTERS ON POLAND.

i the author of a national novel, " The
Intimations of the Heart." Here the author has
linked the present witii the past, modem manners
with those of chivalry. The novel exhibits through-
out the whole a faithful picture of the higher
ranks of society in Poland, and contains much of the
acuteness of observation so admirably displayed
in Miss Edgeworth's Tales of Fashionable Life.
The chapter occasioned by the Qwesta, or collect-
ing of money for the charitable mstitution, which
benevolent duty is performed at Warsaw by ladies
of the first rank, belongs to those momentous pas-
sages over which the author's genius was kindled
in its flame, and on which the memory of the
reader is fond to dwell. The various characters
which the noble envoys of the poor are supposed
to meet on theii* errand in palaces, and in low
workmen's dwelUngs, are delineated with a deep
insight into human nature, and becoming us it
were copies from reality afford delight by con-
trast. Her Highness's other literary production
is the " Tales," in which the domestic life of
the peasantry is pourtrayed. They are distin-
guished for accuracy in representing rural habits
and manners, and for amenity of a tender simple
style. The subject is intended to make an in-
structive reading for the lower classes.

Recently, the writings of Miss Clementina
Tanska have attracted universal attention. She

FEMALE AUTHOHS. 245

"has written the " Legacy of the Mother to her
.Daughter," a work from its tenor, at least in its
'title-page, somewhat similar to the Maternal So-
llicitude of Mrs Taylor. la its contents, how-
[ever, it is entirely free from the mystic senti-
I mentality of the latter, and is chiefly commendable
ffor sound moral practical principles, well calculat-
ed to regulate the social and domestic conduct of
a young person. This work, on account of its
importance, became deservedly a common book of
education for young ladies, and its new editions
are augmented by one or two additional volumes.
Miss Tanska's second work is the " Tales," com-
posed chiefly in the manner erf the Lights and
Shadows of Scottish Life. They have not the
rich brilliancy of style of the Scottish publication,
but exhibit much of the same true imagery of
lowly life, pictured with plain and enchanting
touches of simplicity in thought and style. The
general character of the author's narrative is not
only to represent things as they really are, but
chiefly to produce by their moral tendency a re-
gulative effect. Her work on Religion issued
last year from the press, and was gratifying to
the general expectation, as it has filled up the
blank left in the national literature for a book
of this kind, by its popularity in matter and in
manner.

These last three ladies are the most eminent

■ Th'

246

LETTERS ON POI*ANP.

living female authors in Poland. Anonymous
specimens of ladies' writings, however, occasional-
ly appear, among which may be numbered one or
two dramatic pieces by Miss Wroblewska.

Literature and science are the objects of much
assiduous study among the Polish ladies. The
mode of their early education is calculated to bring
all useful knowledge ivitliin their cognizance. The
education of a Polish lady begins commonly in her
sixth year, or even earlier. During their suc-
ceeding years most of tliem acquire a lasting taste
for reading and literary occupations. French and
German are, for the most part, spoken fluently.
Some of them are acquainted with the Italian.
The classics do not enter into the course of their
studies. The pensions or ladies' schools are plac-
ed under tlie superintendence of the Committee of
Education, and no such institutions can legally ex-
ist without being authorized by it. In this man-
ner, even the education of the fair sex cannot be
under the direction of unqualified persons, and is
not entirely entrusted to the judgment of the pa-
rents, who may, in general, be well-meaning
guides, but not always competent judges. The
objects of instruction are history, geography, a-
rithmetic, foreign languages, Polish composition,
music, and drawing. Every half-year their pro-
gress is ascertained by an examination in the pre-

CONCLUSIOK. 247

sence of the parents, and of one of the members of
the committee delegated for this purpose.

Such is nearly the state of learning in Poland,
and the list of authors who have figured in its an-
nals. Its future proficiency and glory will chiefly
depend on the strenuous energies of the present
generation ; and, to judge trom the state of edu-
cation and the aspiring spirit of the whole people,
a bright futurity seems to be laid open.

Let rae now close the course of my observations
with quoting a passage from Count Ossolinski's
preface to his aforesaid Notices. It will corrobo-
rate the truth of my statements, and throw some
light on points which I left imtouched.

" During my literary researches," says the
Count, " a long series of conspicuous names, and
rich stores of knowledge were more and more dis-
played before my view. My soul dwelt on them
with alternate feelings of wonder, joy, and pride.
I found none of the.Nme Daughters of Mne-
mosyne neglected ; every one had her idolizing
votaries ; and every one bestowed upon her own
favourites her grateful gifts and atfectiou. Nor,
indeed, was there any human science imattainable
to the intellectual grasp of the Poles. In culti-
vating them, some have thrown an embelhshing
lustre over their different branches ; others enlarg-
ed tiieir sphere. If we direct our eyes upwards to
the blue vault of heaven, Who was it that point-

848

LETTEHS ON POLAND.

ed out therevolutionsofthe celestial bodies? Who
was it that illustrated the nature of sight, and the
\ degree of strength requisite for reaching such im-
[■ineiise distances ? — They were Poles. What they
I ^Adopted from extraneous knowledge they adorned
1 *ith additional lustre : in whatsoever they were
I 'left behind, a strenuous application accelerated
"Itfieir retarded steps; so that they speedily over-
, 'took nations which had earlier begun their ca-
[ reer, and sometimes surpassed their rivals. There
JJIB scarcely a country where learning had flourish-
! encircled with greater splendour, ' The same
Uustrious names who were the supporters of the
KtiiroHe and the nation, were the ornaments of our
'literature. The same hand that wielded the staff'
i?*>f command, guided frequently the pen with equal
l'£acility and power. The same temples were often
I 'enwreathed with the double lam-els of the hero and
f"tiie bard. Om- Uterary is also our pohtical his-
'tory. Learning ushered into light even those
[ whom poverty and humble birth would seem to
K' consign to obscurity and obHvion, Not to multi-
^ply instances, I only mention Hosius, Cromer,
l^bbd Simonowicz ; and refer- to those wise statutes,
r'by viitue of which men of learning in universities
j'tSQJoyed equal privileges with the equestrian order.
l*iLearning no less than the sword created nobility
[in Poland. A printer, who followed the victori-
ous armies of Steplien Batori with the implement^

CONCLUSION.

249

of his profession, was raised to the rank of a noble-
man, and the same armorial bearings which ho-
uoured the family of John Zaiuoyski were allow-
ed to him- Foreigners, versed in any branch of
science or the arts, foimd in our country liberal
rewards and honours. Some of them repaid their
hospitable reception by engrafting the saplings of
their knowledge in our soil ; which here soon
spread wide their exuberant branches, while ia
their origmal country they had by negligence
fallen into decay. We may look with scorn on
those who impudently call us the Boeotians, as if our
faculties having been rendered gross by the thickness
of our air, had doomed us, like Cimmerians, to live
for centuries in utter darkness. Foreigners who
will not grant to our ancestors the glory of having
added anything to the general stock of humaa
knowledge, or having propagated it in their own
country, are mistaken, and grossly betray their
own ignorance. They are not acquainted with •
our language, and have no access to our literary
stores. Our literature is for the most part con-
fined within the limits of our own country. It
must also be confessed, that we have been known
for our indifference to the loud trumpet of Fame.
Muret's assertion, ' That the Poles are ready for
great exploits, but do not make display of their own
actions,' holds aLso true with respect to learning.
Many of them, returning from war or the senate.

SffO

LETTEftS OK POLAND.

haTetrpent thdr leunrehooTB mtiteAuypvAiii
Many, after the toHs of their iliral life^lWagfa
soothing' rqrase' in them; bat alniost all aj^Mear
have little heeded the empty hreath of -lam^ a
cbosCT rather to follow Kochanowski'B
ring for mysdf and for the Musee.' **

• •> >

1-* .'

¥1

!i51

LETTER IX.

MuKxmcep&ms of the Sclavonian Countries and their Origin
'^German, French, and English Writings on Pi)land'^
Causes cf the Dismemberment — Elective System — Its Ori^
gin and Merits,

Dear Sir,

'^ Nations live a twofold life^ the mtellectual and the
political."

Having conducted you so far through the li«-
terary history of the Sdavonian nations, and Po-
land in particular, let me now advert to ther pdi«
tical opinions entertained by foreigners r^farding
ihem, ....

It is said somewhere by the celetoated Herder^
that the Sclavonian nations occupy more space oin
the globe than pages in history. To this I may
add, that there i» no people in Europe whose his-
tory is more crowded with incredible and ridicu-
lous narratives than theirs; so much so^ that
their political and domestic existence appears like
a heten^neous compound of despotism, cruelty.

■I

352 LETTERS ON POLAND.

ignorance, and superstition. What the Scythians
formerly were to Greece, the Sclavonians are at
present to the other half of Europe, so that it -t
may be eaid with truth, their country is still a (
terra ijicognita. It seems as if the ancient Scy-
thians leaving their places of abpde to the Sclavo- '
nians, had, by this very legacy, doomed them to
be equally fabulous and unknown. For, though
the Hyperboreans advancing gradually from the
Carpathian mountains, had migrated beyond the
Pyrenees, where at last their very name disap-
peared from the map of nations, and, though a si-
milar fate of oblivion had been shared by the '
Arimaspi, Hippomolgi, Vinidi, Melanchleni, and '
others, whose places of habitation may be found ]
in the Tabula Itineraria Peutingeriana ; yet they ~M
have been succeeded by the Russians, Poles, Bo-
hemians, Moravians, Servians, Bosnians, Bulga>
rjans, Illyrians, Morlachians, Slovacs, Carinthiani^ J
Camiols, Vendens, Cassubians, the strange aoj
counts of whom published either under the high ti» j
ties of Histories, Biographies, and Travels, orimder- j
the more unassuming of Memoirs, Sketches, Ob«J
servations. Letters, in various forms, and in va* j
rious languages, are more miracxilous and ahsuri
than any which the father of historians HerodwJ
tus ever feigned or compiled of the same regioni
and after liim a numerous host of credulous suc*^
cessore. It is astonishing how often candour and

FOBEIGN WRITINGS.

253

integrity are renounced for calumnies, and for
distortion of ttie truth.

Every nation has its own peculiar and constant
character ; the Sciavonians also have theirs, hoth
national and individual. Their good and bad
qualities, — their virtues and vices, — even their
greatness, degradation, and misfortunes, are the
results of "this decided nationality, acted upon hy' I
circumstances, and fostered in the erentfiil bosom
of ages. It is by no means an easy matter to
point out the fundamental causes of these compli-
cated changes, and to detect their hidden and mys-
terious concatenations ; it requires long prepara-
tory studies, deep insight and sagacity. Many '
centuries elapsed before Poland found a historian
like Naruszewicz, and Russia one like Karamzin.
These have learned the character, the habits, and
the affairs of their coimtrymen, by observing them
individually.and by studying their national records.'
Now the foreigners who have ever written on the ,
Sciavonians appear to have wanted zeal, leisure,
and perseverance, to enter so deeply and so fully ^
as the natives have done, into the distinctive cha^
racters of the different nations and tribes, tracing ^1
with precision the intricate rami&catious of their
affairs both public and private. They made their
task easy. The tourist hurriedly picked up ma-
terials for his memorandum-book at the inns, or
in casu^ conyersation — took a^eat deal forgi'ant-

954

LETTERS ON POLAND.

ed with little inquiry, and supplied the rest from
his own too-productive imagination. In this man-
ner a book of travels was fabricated. — The foreign
historian consulted foreign and often inaccurate
autiiorities, in such languages as he happened to
understand, or perhaps some Latin chronicle, if he
chose to give himself that trouble ; but he chiefly
drew his information at second-hand, from hear-
say anecdotes, and flying reports, without exer-
cising much critical discernment to ascertain their
truth and authenticity. In tliis manner was a
book of history ushered into the world. — It was
seldom that any of these authors was acquainted
with the Sclavonic languages, which, of course,
precluded him from the opportunity of converging
with the natives, or, what is still more valuable,
of having access to their written records. The
superficial and useless productions thus originated,
instead of standing as high monuments of history,
exhibit only a tissue of unsubstantial fancies, or
an empty exposition of trifles and falsehoods. For
these reasons, neither the Poles nor the Russians
have hitherto had the benefit of any foreigner,
who has taken such a view of their affairs and ac-
tual condition, as to answer satisfactorily their na-
tional wishes ; and whose work they could safely
recommend to any reader, as an accurate and faith-
ful expositor of the past and present state of their
countries.

I
I

FOREIGN WRITINGS. 355

Taking all the books ever published on both
these nations under one view, I find that they
chiefly relate to the exterior of the people ; as,
for instance, their dress, manners, amusements,
and mode of living — interspersed with anecdotes,
true or false, no matter, if they only possessed sin-
gularity enough to amuse the majority of credu-
lous readers. Political views, of which there was
no lack, commonly ended with heavy sighs on
barbarity and slavery. The moral features of the
nation, and still more the literary, as they have
appeared in the succession of ages, remained a
sealed book.

In confronting the works relating to Russia
and to Poland, the first can, upon the whole,
boast of a greater number of valuable Travels ;
her lands being immense, opened a wide field for
various researches of this kind. The latter, on
the other hand, possesses a multiplicity of histori-
cal writings, variously illustrating her poUtical
condition. With these Russia was scantily sup-
pUed, from very natural causes. She had for a
long time no stable government, nor civilization
enough to appreciate the recording of historical
events. Where the human race is cramped, there
is no room for history : It is silenced by the clang
of fetters. The Huns had their Attila ; the Tar-
tars their Gingis-Khans and Tamerlanes; bnt
they had no Thucydideses nor Humes. It is

256

LETTERS ON POLAND.

with the commencement of freedom that nations
begin to have history. Poland being a constitu-
tional kingdom, or, as the Poles chose rather to
style it, a republic, had a sort of stability in her
government, and a snhstratum of laws, which con-
stituted the basis of history, and their nmtual union
its philosophical essence. The history of Poland
was not the history of the King alone, as is tlie
case in absolute monai-chies, but of the whole peo-
ple, or at least of tfie constitutional nobility. This
state of things enabled the historian to stand on
broad and firm ground, and give scope to his
ideas.

Nothing is more certain, than that the history
of a people becomes more or less extensive, and
wore or less interesting, in proportion to the num-
ber of agents combined to act towards a common
end with conscious freedom and energy. It is
precisely the plui-ality of such agents that makes
the histoiy of Poland richer in vai'iety of events
than that of any nation of Sclavonian origin.
This ti-uth is exemplified in the annals of all re-
puhlJcs, both ancient and modern. A plm'ali-
ty of agents advanced Greece to the high pitch
of her political and moral greatness — made the
characteristic traits of her [Jeojde so ideal, and its
splendid exploits not Only tlie admiration of jioste-
rity, but also a varied inflection in the 'political and
literary concerns of after ages ; insomuch, that

FDKEIGN WRITINGS. 267

tbe history of Greece appears to be the history of
mankind, and the writing of it, in all its extent, a
task, if not altogether impracticable, at least re-
quiring transcendent powers. For the same rea-
son, the history of Venice will, no doubt, fill a
higher place in the records of the human race,
than that of any other contemporary state during
the middle ages. Tlie same may at present be
asserted of the history of Great Britain. Free-
dom of thought and of action constitutes its firm
and splendid basis. The history of Republican
Rome is more engaging and more instructive than
that of Rome under the Emperors. The history
of one single agent, how powerful soever his ge-
nius and liberal his principles may be, can never
exhibit such a variety of events, or so full a play
of passions, as make their appearance in popular
govenunents, — its interest and charm are conse-
quently lost iu monotony.

After these general remarks, which are pecu-
liarly applicable to the history of Poland, let me
henceforth make that country the principal object
of consideration.

Poland, during iier political existence, occupied
an important place among the states of Europe,
and frequently engaged the attention of politi-
cians and even speculative writers ; at the head
of the last may be placed J. J. Rousseau. There
was no country in Europe, not even tlie remotest,

LETTERS ON POLAND.

which did not stand connected with her, either by
operations of hostility or by treaties of friendship.
I A country involved in so many complicated rela-
I 'tions could not but be regarded with different dis-
' positions, and the individual members could not
but participate in the feelings of their respective
communities, and be biassed by them in their own
judgment. None of the writers onPoland have con-
reived themselves to belong to no country and to
no nation, which aort of expatriation Voltaire
[ 'considered as the first requisite of a historian.
•Their feelings were too patriotic to find much
I ^audahle in a country which was not their own.
' Hence, in estimating their merits and integrity, I
I' Shall rank them according to the dispositions of
' their respective countries towards Poland, viz. the
I' German, the French, and the English. Let me
"begin with the Greroians.

Germany has had more intercourse with Poland
I'than the other two countries. The Germans, by
" their very vicinity, as usually happens betwixt
■'neighbouring nations, hated the Poles, and were
^ hated by them in return. The very name of
'^iemiec (a German) became an opprobrious nick-
' name over all Poland and Russia. To confer it
"^ on any one was to insult him, as implying some-
Ittiing despicable and mean. One who is despised
f imturally hates those who despise him. This
P'fffas the case with the '0erniam. From a pso-

FOREIGN WRITINGS. 269"

pensity to hatifed spring cahinmy and misr^n^
sentd,tion, to whiphthe Germims have glaringljf,
evinced a propensity, both in their political ondt
their private piH^edings against Pcdaiid. : This
mutttal enmity seems to 'have taken idaoe ajt am
early period of tbe ' existence of * the two natiotwr^
It'iticreas^ afterwards^ -being .kept alive botkth;)^
their broils* in war and their jealousies in pea^;
The German authors, participating in the n^dnal
spirit, have on every occasion shown their hestil^
eagerness in misrepresenting Poland. Befpit witb
Ditmar of Merseburg, one of :their earliest cihro^'
niclers, and follow them down to Schl6tzer and
leckel; and sufficient evidences may be ^collected
of the degree of candour with whidi their histo-
rical testimonies are compiled. TMsnationjt «c»
knowledged to be in other respects sensible and
philanthropic, was particularly busjr in haranguti^
against the interests c^ Poland at the last crisis of
her existence ; and by flimsy sophistries essayed to
justify the illegal usurpations on that country. .

The French, on the other hand, stood from time
immemorial on an amicable footing with the Poles;
and this amity, strengthened by political treaties,*

* Hauteville says, that the King of France used to ad«
dress his letter to the Diet of Election in these terms : ^^ To
our dearest and well-beloved friends and allies, the States of
the Kingdom of Poland and Great Duchy of Lithuania."
See Connor's Hist, of Pol. Vol. II. p. 128i

260

LETTERS ON POLAND.

and incidental relations, seems to have struck so
deep a root as to survive to the present day. One
i «rf their kings, Henry III., was elected King of
I Poland. Three of the Polish kings, namely, the
I two Casimirs and Stanislaus Leszczynski, sought
I and found a welcome refuge in France : One of the
I Casimirs, sumamed the Monk, before his acces-
don to the Polish throne, and the other after his
abdication. Stanislaus, after having resigned
I the PoHsh crown, was even presented with the
[ Dukedom of Lorraine for life, and subsequent-
ly became father-in-law to the French king
1 Lewis XV. ; and the present Bourbons in France
are his lineal descendants. Polish nobility, Polish
statesmen and generals, even some of their kings,
were educated in France. In more recent times,
the Poles fought and bled together with the
French — gained victories in their cause, as the
French had on different former occasions done
in the cause of Poland, All this influencing the
community in both nations, could not fail to dis-
pose the minds of individuals favourably to one
another. The French testified tlieir regai-d for the
Poles no less in their literary accounts of Poland
than in their various political concerns. The
Poles, again, adliered so warmly to every thing
French, that, at different times, and especially in
latter days, the French manners took the lead in
all good society, and French literature became the
model for the Polish. So striking at last appear-

FOREIGK WBITINGS.

261

^1 toire

ed the similarity of these two nations in tlie whole
cast of their minds, that the Poles have been call-
ed the French of the North.

Most of the French writers on the subject of
Poland had been resident for some time in that
country ; some with the view of promoting their
. country's interests, others of promoting their in-
dividual advancement. Their long stay afforded
them a good opportunity of becomiugintimately ac-
quainted with the character of the natives, and
with tlieir private and political affairs. Their ac-
counts, therefore, bear a certain stamp of antlien-
ticity, which makes them worthy of reliance. It
may be said of them, that, even when strong na-
tional predilection interfered, they seldom permit-
ted themselves to be so influenced, as entirely to
lose sight of the truth. This more particularly ap-
plies to Solignac, Massuet, and Rulhiere, whose
writings on Poland really deserve the name of re-
gular histories, both by their extent of views and
the principles unfolded in them. Nougaret's
" Beauties of the History of Poland" want varie-
ty and concentrated unity to claim legitimately
that honourable title. Choinin's Memoirs, from
the beginning of the sixteenth centmy, and those
of Viomeml, from the close of the eighteenth, both
contain a great deal of accurate and curious infor-
mation. The same may be affirmed of the His-
toire des Trois Demembremens tfc la Pologne,

I.ETTEHS ON POLAND.

,by M. Ferrand. The French authors, again,
-who have ohosen to he guided by passion rather
. than impartiality, are the anonymous Observaieur
e/t Pologne, whose taste for philippics led him to
'Sophisticate truth with unsparing bitterness— and
\ -'L'Ahbe Pradt, in his pamphlet on the Duchy of
Warsaw, where his embassy was too short to en-
'able iiim to form a just conception of Poland, hut
-long enough to create disgust among the nation,
I-'knd to obtain a stigmatizing epithet from his ko-
I ^ - vereign, the recollection of which naturally prompt-
-ed him to give vent to his spleen in liis noted pam-
phlet. But such French writers as these two are
rather exceptions ; and whoever is desirous of ac-
I quiring sound information on Poland, and is un-
'hbie to consult the writings of the natives, cannot
apply to more genuine sources as the French.

The English of old vied with the French in

their affection for Poland. They were, Iiowever,

' *too remote to be so strongly interested in her iH>liti-

cal measures and her fortunes. For a long period

! the inhabitants of this island kept up a frequent

■.commercial intercourse with the Poles, and in the

I 'very heart of their country had mercantile esta-

, blishracnts. They gave at one time a hospitable

I reception to the exiled Polish Socinians. John

.."Laski, a distinguished divine, was one of their

»." number, A considerable nimiber of Scottish

ops constantly served In the Polish army, and

rOUElGN WRITINGS.

263

there still exist among the Polish nobihty several
names very common in this country, as Middle-
tons, Gordons, Lindsays, Johnstons, The Poles
frequently resorted to England in quest of know-
ledge ; for a considerable time two Lithuanian
Protestant students of divinity studied every year
at Oxford. Relations of so complicated a kind
cemented the bonds of mutual firiendly disposi-
tions.

The English of the present day do not seem to
have departed from this path of their ancestors.
They have, however, been strongly biassed with
regard to her by the twofold pretext of forwarding
the interests of humanity, and of promoting those
of political order. Some amongst them, actuated
by feeling, thought the dismemberment of Poland
justifiable upon the ground of having put an end
to the pretended horrors of her disorderly and in-
human anarchy. In this their motives certainly
were noble, and might have been more so, had
they been confined within the limits of reorganiz-
ing that kingdom, instead of extenuating, as they
did, the unjust aggressions against it, whereas
the destruction of national independence is the
worst of all evils that ever can befall a people, and
the general body of human society : it crushes
the moral and intellectual peculiarities of one of
its communities, which loss is without amends
and irreparable. OtherSjWho were coqIw in feel-

S64

LETTEKS ON POLAND.

id confident in the infiiUibility of their cal-
ns, considered Poland as a stumbling-
EUock in the way of the eatablishment of an
[•equilibrium among the states of Europe, * But
have the consequences so fatal to Poland prov-
ed gratifying to the presumptuous certainty
of their anticipations ? By no means. Its ac-
complishment has sown the germ of political mis-
understandings, and of bloody wars, which, at
.several times, have visited that unhappy country,
Eifo render its calamities complete. Both views.

' Dt Coimor's remark, made one hundred years ago with
^.fespect to the same European equilibrium, ik worth noticing,
fa its truth has become, by the concurrence of political
events, almost prophetic : " The order of their govern-
ment," says he, " and their courage and resolution, does not
BO much contribute towards their preservation as the envy
and jealousies of their neighbours among themselves. For,
when the late King of Sweden and Elector of Branden-
burgh made war with Poland, the Tartars came to assist the
V' Poles, and at the same time the King of Denmark made a
I considerable diversion in Swedeland. When the Tartars
[ Ekewise declare war .igainst Poland, moat commonly either
[ fbe Emperor or Moscovite come to its relief, or else make
great diversions on their^sides, — for, as it is the inleresl of
the princes, their neighbours, not to let them gi-ow to that
exorbitant power which they had formerly, so it is not at all
.for their benefit to let them perish ; for whoever could be
able to conquer Poland, and unite it to his own dominions,
would quickly be too powerful for all the rest." — History of
Poland, Vol. 11. p. IIS.

FOREIGN WRITINGS.

265

the one dictated by philanthropy, the other by
the suggestions of reason, could not, in effect, be
crowned with success, as the realization of their
truth tended to the violation of the aacred right
of nations.

The recent works relating to Poland, which you
may read in the English language, are not nume-
rous. Let me give you a short catalogue of them.
The most ancient are merely historical, such as,
" AnAccountof Livonia," by an anon yraoua writer;
Dr Connor's History of Poland ; and Sir Charles
Williams's Sketches of the Polish Kings, written
during his embassy in 1748. The modem ones are
of a more various kind : some even fictitious ; for
fiction is fond of hovering around the ruins ! If you
like something soimd, though wi'itten in a desul-
tory way, read Coxe's Travels ; if something of-
ten true, but oftener taken at random sine grano,
read Burnet's Accoant; if something relating to
the restoration of Poland, read the Appeal to the
Allies and the English Nation in her behalf,
(1814,) and an excellent analysis of it iu the
Edinburgh Review. In the same Review you
shall meet with several other articles, or rather
treatises relating to Poland, written with pro-
found knowledge of history and the state of that
country. If you take dehght in accounts of war,
read Palmer's Authentic Memoirs of the Life of
John Sobieski, and his stiijwndous victories over

tjie Tartars and Turks. If you like something
In the line of novels, read Thaddeus of Warsaw,
by Miss Porter, or the Polish Chief, by an anony-
I aioua author. If poetry, read Lord Byron's Ma-
I zeppa, or a beautiful episode consecrated to the
cause of Poland, in Canapbell's Pleasures of Hope.
' But if you feel disgust at futile declamatory false-
[ hoods, avoid Dr Neale's Travels in Turkey ; and
if you hate scandalous slander, despise the malig-
[ ftant calumnies of the renegado Pole, Herr Baron
L Von Uklansky. Anecdotes, with whicli such
[ books are commonly stored, can represent the his-
[ lory of a people either good or bail, according to
the candid or malignant disposition of die com-
pilei'; but anecdotes, from their special natui-e,
are far from being fit to convey a just idea of
the collective body of a nation ; which, notwith-
standing the vicious aberrations of some few indi-
viduals, is incapable of forfeiting the nobleness of
features characterizing the whole human race,
and which all nations must have in common.

Let me now cast a glance on the policy and the
actions by which Polaud rose to her political im-
portance, as a contrast to the errors and reverses
by which she was at last undone, and her veiy
existence struck out, like a worthless cypher, from
the map of nations.

Poland commenced her political career partly
under the mild sway of her patriarchal Xhikes,

ilECTlVE SYSTEM.

ae?

partly under the oligarchy of her twelve Woie-
wods, (chiefs in war,) her limits at that time not
being very extensive. She rose to her greatest
power under the hereditary monarcha both of the
house of Piast and of Jagello ; and dediued un-
der her elective Icings, who were cliORen by the
collective votes of the whole nation.

The elective eystem lias been so much decried
as to have at length become a common-place sub-
ject, unattractive either for discussion or for read-
ing; and had it been measured according to the
real injurious tendencies in Poland, its condemna-
tion might have been excusable. I do not deny it
to have been, to a certain degree, pernicious to that
country ; but most disapproving opinions direct-
ed against it have been without foundation, and
illusory. Experience teaches, that causes are not
always accompanied with corresponding effects.
They often undergo a process of various change,
from the contact of circumstances, which at length
modiiy their results, and alter their natui'e ; or,
in other words, the beneficial effects of political
schemes are often destroyed, and rendered peril-
ous by casual circumstances, which are hidden in
their progress, and often caimot be foreseen nor
warded off. This Iteing the case, the ruin of Po-
land was not, as is generally taken tbr granted,
the result of her elective system.

Among the causes which have really, more than

268 I.ETTEES ON POLAND.

the elective system, contributed to her disorgani-
zation, there are t/tree principally remarkable.

JFirst, The introduction of the Jesuits into Po-
land, and the entrusting of the moral and religious
education of the people to them. Whatever their
merits may have heen in other countries, their
Order was but jwraicious in Poland. They op-
pressed the Protestants, and spreading the dark-
ness of ignorance and religious fanaticism, dead-
ened the nation in the very heart of its exist-
ence. The vitiated maxims of unprincipled
teachers of morality fostered petty ambition, ava-
rice, and tiie study of private good in opposition
to public, which became the source of troubles and
at last of anarchy. It needed uncommon wisdom
to support a form of govermnent like the elective,
the fi-uit of wisdom, and projected in the brightest
ages of civilization in Poland, when noble pride
and high principles were prevalent. The subse-
quent degenerate state of learning and laxity of
principles were but crazy supports for that new
and lofty structure of govermnent,

Secondli/, Poland was surrounded by three
powerful monai-chies. Catherine II., Frederick II.,
Joseph II., were ambitious sovereigns, looking
per Jos et nefas to their own aggrandizement.
Russia being, by lier local situation, rather an
Asiatic power, aspired, by encroachments on the
provinces of Poland, to become a European mo-

ELECTIVE SYSTEM. 369

narchy, and to acquire a high iii6uence iii the af-
fairs of Europe, — in which she was successful.
Prussia, being one of the rising states of Europe,
strove by new acquisitions to put herself on a le-
vel with other monarchies ; and in reality found-
ed her greatness on the ruins of her mother-coun-
try, to whom her Dukes were anciently vassals.
Austria, more passive in her proceedings, gained
by peaceful diplomacy what the others usurped by
intrigue or violence. Under such circumstances,
a kingdom far more powerful than Poland in phy-
sical and moral resources, woidd have fallen an
easy prey to machinations so imexampled.

Tkirdlijf Poland had no strong natural fron-
tiers. No sea surrounded it, no great rivers, no
insuperable mountains. It was on all sides an
open country, and for many centuries exposed to
the inroads of the Tartars, Turks, Swedes, and
Russians. During fourteen centuries, Poland's
sole shield and strength was the valour of her
SODS. Had she been placed in a more favourable
geographical position, or had she been an island,
her elective system would probably have never
proved her bane ; but would perhaps have become
an object of no less admiration than the Constitu-
tion of Great Britain.

Having thus shown the futility of the common
declamations against the elective system, as the
only cause of the disasters in Poland, I am even

370 LETTERS ON POLAND.

led to believe, on ver^ plausible grounds, that the
nature of the system neither was fantastical nor
erroneoua. It was not only correct in its abstract
and metaphysical principles, but likewise useful,
and capable of being realized in practice. For,
what can l>e more natural than that he should
conduct the affairs of the community who is con-

' sidered to be the best qualified for that charge,
and as such is chosen unanimously by the majori-
ty of the collected votes of the whole community ?
— a community composed of the proprietors of
lands, (as the case was in Poland, and has been

'in every constitutional country,) and who in the
mean while were known to be the most eidighten-
*d dass of the inhabitants. Were that state of
tilings nothing but an ideal and idle dream, then
the Archons in Athens and the Consuls in Rome,
who were created conformably to tlie same prin-
ciples, must remain but imaginary beings and his-
torical fictions. Had there been, in truth, no
practical advantages in such elections, Athens and
Rome would never have arrived at their political
importance, nor woidd there, perhaps, be any ad-
vantage in choosing representatives, as is usual in

[ constitutional countries. What other nations have

' realized with respect to their representatives and
chief magistrates, the Poles had realized with re-
spect to their kings, the highest magistracy.
They admitted all foreign princes, kipgs' sons,
II

ELECTIVE SYSTEM. 371

without even exdudiag any of their fellow citi*
zens, as competitors for the vacant throne, and
chose the one whose appointment they thought
most conducive for promoting their coimtry'e wel-
fare. In this proceeding there may be something
novel, but nothing extravagant. It implies no
lofty theory like that of the republic of Plato,
or the fanciful monai'chy in Xenophon's Cyropje-
dia, but only liberal views, both beautiful in theo-
ry and advantageous in practice. The Poles were
governed by it for upwards of two hundred years.
Here it was not the insufficiency of human reason
to project high schemes of pohtical improvement,
capable of being embodied in well-going political
institutions, nor the difficulty of elevating human
affairs to a superior state of perfection, but the
malignant agency of external circumstances, that
baffled the enlightened efforts of the Poles. Had
the Poles been free from that influence, they would
probably not have incurred such risk, nor met with
disappointment. Their defects and deficiencies
would in time have foimd their appropriate reme-
dies. All plans for promoting the happiness of
human society require time to arrive at maturity
in the developement and establishment of their
principles ; and most of all, a form of government
like the elective, in which the passions of men
have such free and full play, and manifest them-
selves under so various shapes, acting and react-

272

LETTERS ON POLAND.

ing, building and destroying. The 8ymptoni,s
of this turbulence of the passions are sufficiently
i^parent in every country where the election
of representatives takes place ; how much more
must they have been so in Poland, where the
King himself was elective — where each uoble-
man had a right to vote in the choice of
bis sovereign, and might even be elected him-
self? In the amazing comj)hcation of the social
order, any failure or mishap in the realization of a
political scheme is not sufficient to prove that
scheme to be entirely ineffectual, nor will certain
sinistrous results condemn it as radically wrong.
They may evince its having been defectively con-
ceived, or, what is the same, show its uaperfec-
tions ; but they can never prove its worthlessness
or impracticability.

If you approve of the principles implied in
these desultory remarks, you will, I think, be far
from condemning entirely the elective system of
Poland ; and nobody, I think, could do it with-
out incurring the guilt of sneering at the progres-
sive march in himian affairs. Caprice and teme-
rity had no greater shai-e in establishing that sys-
tem in Poland than they have had in all the ef-
&rts which ever have been made for emancipat-
ing the huraau race from oppression, and for pro-
moting liberal designs. The Poles cannot be de-
nied the praise of having acted here in favour of

ELECTIVE SYSTEM.

273

the national rights of man, with which they were
deeply impressed — a sentiment which can only be
maintained by an enlightened coramimity.

In the very establishment of the elective sys-
tem the Poles showed a deep insight into the
affairs of their country, and acted with much
caution, to avoid the dangers of a 8udden transi-
tion from a hereditary monarchy to a republic.
Accordingly, they constituted an elective kingdom,
as holding a middle place betwixt monarchy and
republic — betwixt arbitrary power and turbulent
freedom. The same authority and the same pre-
rogatives possessed by their hereditary mouarchg
were conferred on their elective kings. Their
sous, though excluded from the direct succession,
were not excluded from being candidates to the
crown. They allowed them even a degree of
preference before tlie rest of tlie competitors ; and
there are instances in which not only the sons of
the kings, but even their brothers, were raised to
the throne. Subsequent misfortimes were the
offspring of the want of a fiill pi-ovision against
abuses. No previous models existed in history of
this sort of government, which might have warn-
ed the Poles how to avoid the Scyllae and Cha-
rybdes, betwixt which they had to steer. It was
a system, in a certain degree, entirely their own
—peculiar only to the Sai'matian race, who were
originally accustomed to the authority of a mode-

374

LETTEES ON POLAND.

rate government. It originated without -any ge-
neral convulsion of society, and appears to have
been the natural fruit of wisdom, matured fay the
progress of ages.

Historical records, bearing testimony to this
f fiict, detail also the origin of that system in Po-
l land. In general, the leading character of the
Polish monarchs was moderation in the use of
their power, and that of their subjects submission
to their authority and affection to their persons.
The natiou, having endured no oppression on their
part, had no cause for resentment or retahatiou ;
and, actuated by religious principles, which enjoin
reverence towards the Kings as the anointed of Grod,
actually revered them in a degree almost border-
ing on superstition. Hence it happened, as I
have elsewhere observed, that the pages of the
Pohsh history were not stained with the crime of
regicide, which is a rare exception in the annals
of nations. After the two lines of their heredi-
tary kings, the Piasts and Jagellons, to whom
they clung with affection, were laid in their graves,
they mourned over their tombs that no successor
was left to fill the orphan throne, iu whom they
might see the glory of their monarchs renewed.
Their country H'as too much exposed to hostile
invasions to admit of a female government. They
felt iJie necessity of having an energetic nUer;
but there was none who had a legitimate claim to

ELECTIVE SYSTEM. 275

mle over them, except he on whom they should
confer this high and important dignity. And
whom could they with more propriety invest with
it than !um who, independently of lineage, was
judged the ablest of answering their expectations ?
But in what way was this individual to be fixed
upon, if not by the unanimous agreement of the na-
tion ? This then they did. The chief cause of
their former happiness was their freedom ; they
thought it advisable to proceed with caution in
securing it. They had no dread of itings; but
they dreaded tyrants. The best expedient against
the usurpation of power was to oblige the king-
elect, before his accession, to come under a solemn
oath, blading him to preserve the ancient statutes
and prerogatives, which they regarded as the pal-
ladium of their liberty. The conditions thus pre-
scribed to the king were called the Pacta Cott-
venta. Their infringement was to dissolve the
bond of allegiance, (non pra?standa obedientia.)
Thus, by prescribing conditions on the one liaiui,
and by granting privileges on the other, the mu-
tual connection between the nation and the king
was established, the authority of the king conso-
lidated, and the freedom of the people secured.
In virtue of these stipulations the Poles became
the freest nation in Europe ; and enjoyed the li-
berty of declaring their opinion in public debates
and deliberations, without constraint or feai-. At

376 LETTERS ON POI-AND.

a time when, in other countries, none could remon-
strate with the monarch without becoming guilty
of the crime of heste majestatis, a weU-known Po-
lish statesman could, in the senate, admonish his
king in such words as, Regna ne impera ! Or
damp his anger with the republican vigour of a
Jloman, " Caveas, ne te Caium Ceesarem et nos
' 'Sfarcos Srutos posteritas appellarit r Suchade-
eisive check did the Poles exercise against the at-
tempts at arbitrary power; and, for doing so,
they thought they possessed a legitimate right as
citizens, and a natural one as men.

Nor had the Poles much caiise of complaint
■against their elective kings ; for. whilst the two dy-
nasties of their hereditary monarchs, the Piast
and Jagellons, were eminent, the one as warriors,
and the other as protectors of science, the elective
kings were distinguished for both, which appears
to have been in them the result of their superior
personal abihties. The first may enumerate many
who, like Boleslaus, (Krzywousty,) fought forty-
seven battles ; but they cannot easily show a Ste-
phen Batori, who was both a great warrior and a
zealous jjromoter of science. The acliievements
by which John Sobieski was eminent in war are
generally acknowledged to have been extraordin-
ary ; in peace, he cultivated the speculative sciences,
and had also hie poetical lioui-s. Some of the elect-
ive kings manifested a decided predilection for li-

ELECTIVE SYSTEM. 277

terary pui'suits, which they thought, in enlighten-
ed times, more worthy of a monarch than a rude
military valom-. The last king, Stanislaus Po-
uiatowski, revived among the Poles a genera! zeal
and taste for their national literature. He himself
possessed a highly cultivated mind, and uncom-
mon powers of eloquence, which he frequently
exemphfied in the Diets, and to which he chiefly
owed the preservation of his life when dragged
captive hy the Confederates of Bar. Stani-
slaus Leszczyuski, after his abdication, used to
divide his hours between study aud beneficent
actions, which obtained for Iiim in France the
flattering surname of a " Phihsophe biefi-fai-
aimt" Several others of the elective kings dis-
tinguished themselves more or less, either as war-
riors, or as lovers of science. The two Saxon
Augustuses alone promoted in Poland nothing
but riot aud drunkenness. Under their enervat-
ing reign that nation fell into a total lethargy of
thought and of action. Their friendly connec-
tions with the Russian Czars paved the way to
the influence of Russia in the aifairs of Poland.

Moreover, as the elective system exalted emi-
nent talents to the throne, it was equally fitted
to rouse individual minds to a high degree of
energy and activity. It called forth coi^pieuous
men in different professions and departments of
pubUc life, who, under the monarchical government,

378

LETTERS ON POLAND.

and particularly under the Pia&t, had been rather
scarce. The epoch of elections was espedally
prolific in eminent generals. The inroads of the
Tartars, Turks, and Swedes, and the subsequent
encroachments of the neighbouring powers on the
provinces of Poland, awakened military talents
to repel invasion, and to cheek usurpation.
We see Chodkiewicz and Lubomirski fighting
with the Turks, — Czarnecki with the Swedes, —
Zolkiewski and Kosciuszko with the Russians, —
Dombrowski and Zaionczek at the head of the
expatriated Polish legions, and others whose
various merits it would be as difficult to estimate,
as perhaps their names for foreigners to pro-
nounce, which, however, sound harmonious and
sweet in the ears of every Pole, since they con-
jure up, as if by a magic spell, a long chain of
past events linked to his patriotic sympathies,
and intimately connected with the varying for-
tunes and the glory of his native eomitry.

From this, I think, it appears sufficiently ob-
vious that the elective system has not in itself
proved pernicious to Poland, but was in many re-
spects rather beneficial, and might eventually have
been more so, had its developemeut been preserv-
ed from the contact of adverse external circum-
stances. Further, it might have proved salutary
to all classes of the inhabitants, by promoting
their individual in1*rests, had not the rig^t of

ELECTIVE SYSTEM.

379

electing the kiugs been confined to the nobility,
with the exclusion of the inhabitants of towns and
villages. These three bodies might conjointly
have formed a sort of harmonious triad, strength-
ening each other mutually, — each ansious to pro-
mote its own interests, and eserting, by reciproci-
ty of reaction, a salutary check over the selfish
ascendancy of the others. But it seems that it
was then too early a period for the formation of
the tters-etats. Throughout all Europe the su-
premacy of the nobility was at that time indis-
putably acknowledged, and the other classes were
kept in the shade. The nobles alone were held
worthy of standing at the hebn of government.
The towns which at present occupy ko important a
place in the councUs of the constitutional commu-
nities were yet in their embryo, and the peasantry
were oppressed and ignorant. It was every where
easy to prejudice these classes of the inhabitants ;
and this happened in Poland to her detriment.

At the approaching fatal crisis the patriotic-
minded Poles were aware of the enormities of a
state of things threatening disasters to their coon-
try; in orderto redressthemtheyarosewithenei^.
In a little, abuses were abolished by means of vo-
limtary concessions, and beneficial improvements
enacted. The peasants were proclaimed free, and
were no longer adttricii gleliae, as had long been
the practice. In virtue of an article in the new

I S80 LETTERS ON POLAND.

code, freedom was extended to every man the
moment he touched Polish ground, — a generous
principle in legislation peculiar only to the British
and American constitutions, though in the latter
country soiled by the cruel exception of negro
slavery. The whole Polish constitution of the
3d of May 1791 was founded on such Uberal
principles favourable for promoting the happinesB
of social order. It wasi the most glorious work in
the annals of modern legislation, and it became an
object both of admiration and applause with all libe-
ral minds throughout Europe. One of the greatest
philosophers of Germany, the celebrated Kant,
pronounced his enthusiastic admiration of it in
these words : " Nisi scirera opus humanum esse,
divinura crediderira," Mr Burke, in one of his
speeches, panegyrized it with his usual eloquence.
" Happy people," said he, " if they knew to pro-
ceed as they have begun ! Happy prince, worthy
to begin with splendour, or to close with glory a
race of patriots and of kings ! To finish — this
great good, as in the instaut it is, contains in it
the seeds of all future improvement, and may be
considered as in regular progress, because found-
ed on similar principles, towards the stable excel-
lence of a British constitution." — But the wisdom
of these statutes could be of no avail to the na-
tion, which, immediately after the proclamation of
them, was cnunbled into dust.

281

LETTER X.

'* Daieie Panofvania Zygmunta III. Krola Polskiegq : or The
Hist&ry of the Reign of Sigismund II L King of Poland^ by
I. U, Niemcewicz, at Warsaw ^ 1819" — Statistical Remarks :
— The Peasantry — The Army — Revenue of the King — Co^
ronation — Election of Sigismund III. — Relations with
England — Accusation against the King^^Wars — ZolkieW"
ski's Entry with the Captive Czars into Warsaw — War toith
Turkey^-^Chodkiewicz's Speech to his Army — Conclusion.

Beab Sir,
In this letter I shall indulge in the analysis of
an excellent historical work of a native Pole, Ju-
lian Ursyn Niemcewicz. I have purposely chosen
it, as being a production of a most eminent Polish
author: and the great popularity which it enjoys
in Poland may be to you its best recommendation.
It comprises the reign of our third elective king,
Sigismund III. an interval of forty-five years,
from 1587 to 1632. It is a period memorable for
the glory and misfortunes of Poland, exhibiting
the activity of her people and the indolence of her
king. It was the end of her good fortunes and
the beginning of her evil.

282 LETTERS ON POLAND.

At that period the dominions of Poland extend-
ed from the Baltic Sea to the Dnieper and the
Pruth ; from the Dwina to the Carpathian moun-
tains and Silesia. Tlie Duke of Prussia and of
Coui'land, the Hospodara of Moldavia and Wal-
lachia, were vassals to the Polish kings. The
house of Austria was not dreaded, it was even
sliglited by the Poles, who rejected the competi-
tion of her Archduke Maximilian for the Polish
throne, and John Zamoyski, who defeated his
army at Byezyua, detained him prisoner of state
in his own castle at Kraenyetaw.* The neigh-

* On one occasion, Zoxaoyeki requested tlie Archduke to
dine with him and a society uf his friends, but receiving a
haughty refusal, he ventured to remind him of his situation
by encircling th ero/o-ia6fe of hia imperial captive with a chain
of gold. He received many solicitations in behalf of his cap-
tive; but neither those of his majesty the King of France, nor
those of his Holiness the Pope, coiddmove a plain Polish citizen,
(obywatel,) who meant well for his country, to set him free
till he had for ever renounced all pretensions to the Polish
crown. So unshaken was the firmness of character of the Poles,
and which none but men born in free govemmeuta are capa-
ble of possessing. A law was enacted in Pohmd, pioliibft-
ing the use of all foreign titles, as Count or Baron. Tob*a
nobleman of a free nation v/ne considered the highest «nd
the most honourable distinction. King John Sobieski, to
whom, after the victory over the Turks at Vienna, Louis
XIV. King of France, sent the Order of the Holy Ghost,
was censured in the senate for having condescended to bear
" lAver

THE REIGN OF SIGISHniND III. 28a

bouring Turks alone etood occaaionally ou un-
friendly terms with Poland, but were no danger-
ous foe. Russia, humbled by Stephen fiatoi'i —
without czars — tired of her Pseudo-Demetriuses
— invited Vladislaus, the son of our Sigismuud, to
her sceptre and crown. With a little prudent con-
duct on the part of the king, who, though an
elective one, was not without power, Poland might
have become a more powerful monarchy than the
present Russian empire, and might soon have held
in awe all the neighbouring nations of Europe.
But strange to read in the annala of the human
race, the father became jealous of his own son, and
of the empire vohuttarily offered to him by aforeign
nation. He detained bim so long at home, that
the Polish anny which preceded him to Moscow,
and the Russian nation lost all hope of his arrival.
The Russians, miBtrusting the sincerity of the de-
signs of the king, elected a czar from among
themselves. Thus, by the misconduct of the
king, an empire was lost. There still remained
Sweden, which, after the death of her aged king,
was to devolve on Sigismund, as his legitimate
heir. But upon the death of the Swedish mo-
narch, he found a bold usurper in his own uncle.
He sailed with his fleet to quell the revolt, and
was successful ; btit, intoxicated with a rehgious
frenzy, in consequence of the instigations of the
Jesuits, his privy councillors, he soon aUenated

LETTERS ON POLAND.

the minds of his loyal Protestant subjects, and
was at last compelled to resign the sceptre into
the hands of the usurper. Thus, again, a king-
dom was lost: and, in addition to its loss, the
Poles were involved in long and bloody wars with
Sweden, because the Polish kings would not dis-
continue to arrogate to tliemselves the empty title
of the kings of Sweden, in like manner as the
kings of England used to adopt that of the kings
of France.

Poland may be said to have then stood in the
zenith of her greatness, with ample means in her
power to secure for herself an um-ivaUed ascen-
dancy in Europe ; but she was destined to de-
scend. Our author, in describing that period,
may be imagined standing on the summit of a
lofty mountain, from which he surveyed, ou the
one hand, the glory of his country's rise, and, on
the other, tbe disasters of its downfall ; on the
one hand, its bloom and its promises, on the other
its decay and despair. The glory whicli, imme-
diately on reaching its appointed height, begins
to fade away, presents the most gloomy and pi-
teous aspect. Every generous struggle is then
seen to prove abortive, every effort, in whatever
way exerted, ineffectual. It is of sndi an imhap-
py crisis of his nation that our author traces the
picture. He has executed it lite a philosopher
and a poet— like a historian and a statesman —

I
I
I

THE REIGN OF SIGI8MUND III. 285

like a patriot and a calm observer. The tenor of
his work, which breathes a gloomy sensibility,
impresses the reader more than once with the
idea, that he coiild not touch on several of the
events without having felt a painful sensation, as
often as he conceived them to be the preparatory
causes which, by a gradual accumulation of evils,
were to end in the sad final catastrophe of which
he was himself not only a witness but a sufferer.
After the dismemberment of Poland, he was long
a prisoner in Russia, and lived an exile in Ame-
rica along with Kosciuszko.

Before entering on the history of Sigismnnd
III. our author premises in his introduction a
short statistical account of Poland, her produce,
manufactures, trade, and finances. From this in-
troduction I shall select a few extracts.

According to his statement, Poland and Li-
thuania taken together, contained before the first
partition, that is, before the year 1772, about four-
teen or fifteen milliouB of inhabitants, and under
the reign of Sigismimd III. might have had about
sixteen millions.

The trade of Poland, he says, was carried on
with Italy, Turkey, Persia, and all the other east-
em countries, by the Black Sea. Dui'ing the time
of Witold and Jagello, (1386,) the boundaries of
Lithuania extended as far as Oczakow, Poland
often furnished the emperors of the east with corn.

996

LETTERS ON POLAND.

Dantzic and Konigsberg were the most important
marts of Polish commerce with the west of Eu-
rope, CellariuH, giving an account of the Polish
trade in 1660, assei-ts, that upwards of six hun-
dred vessels arrived aimually at Dantzic.

Ou agriculture he makes a remark, equally ap-
plicable to the state of Poland, and to that of every
country placed in the same situation. " What-
ever riches," says he, " had been brought into our
country from the export of the produce of the soil,
instead of nourishing, like fertilizing streams,
the industrious classes, flowed directly into the
hands of the powerful nobles, to fill their houses
with plate of gold and silver, and to decorate their
apartments with richest tapestries. Towns which
flourished were, by the intru.sion of the Jews,
brought nearer and nearer to tlie brink of misery.
The splendour and luxuries of the seats of the no-
bility formed an uupleasiug contrast with the po-
verty and meanness of the villages. This debase-
ment of the people was the consequence of large
territorial properties. Thousands oiwloks,* pos-
sessed by a single landholder, do not yield one-half
the profits which they might do if parcelled out
into smaller manors, each cultivated by its respect-
ive proprietor."

It is an undeniable fact, that the Polish pea-

• Wloka is a PoUbU measure of land equal to about forty
English acres.

I
i

santry, who are settled on the lands of small pro-
prietors, are in general wealthier than those' on
extensive domains. Accordingly, our author seems
here to insinuate the necessity of dividing larger
domains into smaller poseeesiona ; but lie did not
show how this might be effected without exposing
the present proprietors to losses. It is not even .
probable that, in the present state of things, the
distresses of the peasants could be relieved by mak-
ing them farmers, by parcelling out the manors
among them for an annual rent. All projects of
this nature, realized so successfully in other coun-
tries, have only proved distressing to those libera!
proprietors who attempted to realize them in Po-
land, for the following reasons : First, The want
of practical knowledge of farming among the pea-
santry ; Secondly, The fluctuation of the corn-
trade, the principal branch of the tenants' yearly
profits ; Lastly, The instability of political events,
which constantly exposes them tounfbreseen losses,
and is hostile to all improvement. Civil and do-
mestic circumstances make the Polish peasantry
constantly require the protection, counsel, and sup-
port of the landlord, whose experience of public
affairs can prevent disastrous casualties, while his
more extensive resources can relieve their neces-
sities. Thnsit is a factof every day's occurrence
in Poland, to see peasants provided by their land-
lords mfli sced-com, cattle, and implements of

288

LETTERS ON POLAND.

husbandry, sometimes with, but more commonly
without any return. Their usual duties are not so
strictlyexacted as maybe supposed; and theammal
re»*«M«n/*orarrearsareobjects of dispensation often
practised in Poland. Where the sense of huma-
nity is not a sufficient motive for this act of indul-
gence, selfish prospects render it indispensable.
Any ill usage on the pai't of the landlord towards
" his peasantry turns ultimately against his own
• interests, as it tends to incapacitate them for per-
forming their duties to him. A wealthy peasantry
constitutes not only the wealth but the pride of the
■ landholder. These mutual relations between them
often become sources of attachment. There were
instances, when a landlord was necessitated to
' Bell his estate and the villages attached to it, that
his peasantry offered liim a sum of their own sav-
ing, not to let them pass into other hands.

The feudal system spreading over all Europe
during the middle ages, introduced this state of
things among the Sclavonians. The previous more
popular form of government, so favourable to the
independent condition of the lower classes, gra-
dually disappeared, and Poland became divided
into manors and tenanted properties, and her in-
habitants into nobles and peasantry. At the in-
troduction of that system moderation was the cha-
racteristic of the condition of bondage ; and it was
fflily lathe course of the seventeenth and eighteenth

PEASANTRY.

289 '

I
I

centuries that it degenerated into oppression;
which conduct on the part of the landholders
brought the severer censure against them, as other
nations emerged from the feudal state or checked
its abuses.

Within the last fifty years the condition of the
peasantry assumed a more pleasing aspect ; and it
is to be expected that the progressive amelioration
of the government, seconded by the prevailing
liberal ideas of the nobility, will at length leave
nothing undone to promote the welfare of this
class of society. Political circumstances and le-
gislation have already done much in this respect,
and foreigners will not henceforth have occasion
to deplore their enthralled condition as adstricti
glehts. Their propeity, as well as their personal
freedom, is secui-ed. I'liey can now quit a place
and settle in another to improve their condition.
The only appearance of restraint that exists is the
requisition of being provided with a personal pass-
port, which the maintenance of the order of so-
ciety renders necessary. The portions of land
which they originally occupied as tenants at will,
though generally perpetual, are now made by law
iiTedeemably their own property, descending from
parent to child in regiUar succession. From these
lands they pay taxes to the government in the
same way as the landlord does from his own
estate. Their obligations to their landlord are de-

I.ETTEES ON POLAND.

fined by law ; and they may seek redress against
any oppressive exactions. Their duty is to work
a certain number of days on his estate, which they
do in proportion to the extent of their land. The
species of labour is specified in the landlord's iu-
rentory or rent-roll ; as well as the paymenta re-
quired to be rendered in kind, such as poultry,
eggs, yarn, &c. somewhat similar to those leases
formerly held in Scotland, and of which " the
king's ain kindly tenants" in Lochmaben still
remain an example. In case of the landlord's
disposing of his property, the condition of the
peasantry on his estate is not in the least affected;
they continue to perform the same duties to the
purchaser which they did previously. He does
not sell the property nor the person of the pea-
sant, as has been commonly represented ; but lie
only sells the duties required from him as a sort
of remuneration for Uie ground he is put in pos-
F Mesion of.

It cannot, however, be said, that this state of
the peasantry is universal over all the provinces
which formerly composed the kingdom of Pohind.
It was modified by the features of the laws of the
respective partitioning powers. In Russia, where
the privileges of the nobility exempted them from
taxes, the whole burden of taxation lies upon the
peasantry. The complicated system of laws in
that extensive empire admits of great looseness in
li

I
I

its execution, and arbitrary power iu the exac-
tions made by the governing from the governecU
But it is to be hoped that the philanthropic acti-
vity of Russia's present ruler, and an interval of
peace, will, ere long, bring on the desirable period
when equitable statutes shall establish more firm-
ly than ever the prosperity of social order in aU
its ramifications.

Of the military force, our author says, " The
Poles never lost much time in deliberation, their
chief strength and their security has been always
in the edge of their swords. The inroads of the
Tartars and Moscovites, and the increasing power
and jealousy of the Teutonic Order in Prussia,
did not permit our ancestors to doff their helmets
from their brows, or lay their swords from their
hands. For a long time there had been no regular
standing army in other countries: the same was the
case in Poland. In case of necessity, each pro-
prietor of a certain extent of land, and each of
the towns, were bound to raise a number of sol-
diers and to join the expedition. Charles VII.
King of France, {in 1445,) was the first of the
European monarchs who established a regular
army, which was composed of 9000 cavalry and
16,000 infantry. Other raonarcha followed his
example. In Poland, under the reign of Sigis-
mund Augustus, (in 1562,) an ai'my called Kwar-
ciane was organized and paid out of the fourth

392 LETTEES ON POLAND.

part of the revenues from the Starosties or crown-
lands. To these may be added the Cossacks, who,
during the reign of Stephen Batori, performed a
regular service in guarding the frontiers of the
Ukraine and Fodolia from the inroads of the
Turks and Tartars ; and, finally, the Royal
Chcards, with their mihtary attendants and the
staff of nobility, forming a considerable power
ready for the field at a moment's call. Anciently
the Poles had no other army except the PosjJoU/e
rusaenie, or arming en masse. Afterwards, it was
only raised upon unexpected and critical emer-
gencies. The nobility performed their service
without any pecuniary recompense, as long as the
war lasted within the limits of Poland. They
were for this pm-pose summoned by toici, or writ-
ten orders fastened to a long pole and carried
about in the provinces. In such cases the Fiery
Cross gave the signal in Scotland. An army
mustered in this manner was sufficient not only
to defend Poland, but to enlarge her boundaries
by conquest. The Polish army consisted chiefly
of cavalry, under the various denominations of
Hussars, Pancerni, and Cossacks, the first forming
its most efficient part. The principal nobility were
enlisted in their ranks, and were sheathed in com-
plete armour. The equipment of a single hussar
was estimated at about 50,000 livres. Their
horses were Turkish or Natolian. A falcliion

■ narc

THE ABMY. 293

was hung by their side, and in their hands they
carried spears of nineteen feet in length, with two
coloured floating flags attached to them, four or
five yards in length, to frighten the enemy's horses.
Over their shoulders were loosely thrown skins
of lions, tygers, and leopards, and on both sides
of their shoulders stood erect the wings of
eagles and vidtures set in silver. These, too,
were calculated to frighten the horses. Their
stirrups and bridles were silver or gold ; their
saddles richly ornamented. They were the trust
and the strength of the Polish army. The
J*ancemi were a sort of lighter cavalry, and
used to carry some yards of silken cords by way
of symbols of the binding of the captives. The
infantry occupied a subordinate place in the Po-
lish army. In ancient times this species of troojffi
were unknown ; and at a later period they con-
sisted entirely of foreigners, Hungarians, Ger-
mans, Moravians, and Scottish ; for the Poles
reckoned the infantry rather a discreditable ser-
Tice for themselves."

The income of the Polish king, says our author,
was so considerable as to place him on an equal
footing with the King of England, whose yearly
revenue, before his encroachment on the church
demesnes, did not exceed 600,000 scudi, which
sum was likewise the amount of the Polish mo-
narch's revenue. The salt-mines of Wieliczka

894 LETTERS Oil POLAND.

and Bochnia formed its principal source. They
supplied with t!iat article of commerce not only
Poland, but Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, and other
adjacent countries.

Anciently the Polish kings were crowned in
Gnesno, and afterwards in Cracow. They receiv-
ed the holy unction and the crown from the
hand of the Archbishop of Gneano, Primate of the
kingdom. Before the high-altar the king flourish-
ed an ancient aword, called Szase-rbtec* three times
over his head, signifying by this act his readiness
to defend the Triuity and the Church against in-
fidels. He was then conducted towards the throne,
where the primate pronounced these words : " Be

* Sscnerbiec is the sword with which King Bolcf^aus
Chrobry, or the Valiant, entering Kiow as conqueror, struck
against the portal of the city, called tlie Golden Gate. It
received that name from the gape made on its edge by tlie
force of the stroke. The military valour of this king made
him, in the beginning of the eleventh century, protector and
umpire in tile dissensions arising among the different petty
powers in Russia and in Bohemia. He subjected to liis
sceptre the whole stretch of lands from the Dnieper to the
Elbe ; and ordered iron columns to be fixed on the banks of
these two rivers to be the marks of the frontiers of his king-
dom, and lasting monuments of his victories. Tlie I'oleb
preserved his sword as a consecrated relic ; and their kings
used it ever after in the ceremony of their coronatJon. It is,
1 believe, still preserved in the archives of a distinguishes!
Polish family, while the otlier regalia, of more intrinsic value,
disappeared from Poland at the period of her partition.

COEONATION.

seated, and maintaiD thy seat granted to thee by
God." Then the vassals of the kingdom, the
Dukes of Prussia, Poinerania, and Courland. on
bended knees, offered liim tlieir homage, confirm-
ing, with asolemn oath, their allegiance and fidelity.
Next day the king appeared iu the Great Squ»%
of the capital, s^ted on the throne, in robes of
state, and decorated with ail the emblems of toy-t
alty. There, according to the custom, having
brandished his sword towards the .four quarters
of the world, indicating, by this act» his zeSl to de*
fend his kingdom against its enemies, he then con-
ferred the honours of knighthood, touching gent-
ly with his blade the shoulders of the new knights,
— distinguished some nobles by presenting them
with valuable chains, — and at last received the
homage and the oath of allegiance from the re-
presentatives of the people. The coronation of
the queen was performed in a similar solemn man-
ner ; but the king alone had the right of putting
the crown upon her head. She received no ho-
mage, nor was she invested with any real autho-
rity. But I shall stop here ; these feudal cere-
monies are now become obsolete, and venerable
only for their antiquity, as characteristics of the
spirit of past ages.
K I hurry also through a large crowd of dignita-

K* ries of state, whom our author describes " as hav-
■ ing rendered the court of Poland one of the most

LETTERS ON POLAND.

splendid in Euroire, as if the long required this
gaudy pageantry to cover his want of real power."
Among these dignitaries the principal were the
two Graud-Hetmans, commanders-in-chief, one of
the crown, or kingdom of Poland, the other of the
Great-Duchy of Lithuania. Next in place were
the offices of the Chancellor and Vice-Chancellor,
both the most important civil fiinctionB in the king-
dom. On some occasions they had the power of af-
fixing their seals to public acts and warrants, even
without consulting the king : Nay, they might re-
fuse to seal the orders of the king himself, if they
judged them to be encroachments upon the rights
and liberties of the nation.

The author concludes his Introduction with a
general view of the state of the European mo-
narchies at that period. Tlie reign of Sigismund
III. is contemporary with that of Elizabeth and
James I. in England. Queen Mary in Scotland
was deprived of her Crown in the very year in
which Sigismund received his from the hands of
the Polish nation.

In the very outset of liis history, our author
gives us a detailed account of the Interregnum,
after the death of Stephen Batori, and relates, at
some length, the discordant altercations to which
it gave occasion. The personal animosities of
some nobles, filling the whole country with dis-

ELECTION OF SIGI8MUND III. 297

BeutioQ, kept the nation in a state of war, and re-
tarded the election of the new king.

As usual, there was no want of candidates to
the thi'one. Amongst theiu were the four Arch-
dukes of Austria: the Archdidte Maxuniliau being
the most distinguished for natural talents and
engaging manners. The other candidates were,
Theodore Iwanowicz, Grand Duke of Moscow,
Andrew Baton, Duke of Transylvania, nephew
to the deceased king, and Sigismund Crown-
Prince of Sweden, born from a Polish princess
of the line of Jagellon. Being descendant of a
lineage to which the Poles bore a great affection,
he was elected and proclaimed king by the majo-
rity of the nation.

The Poles waited long ere their new king came
over from Sweden to Dantzick, where he was de-
tained an entire week with much festivity. From
taking so long a repose from his voyage, he seems
not to have been very anxious to hasten his coro-
nation. He arrived at last in Cracow ; and, be-
ing addressed in a speech at the gate of that ca-
pital, he had the prudence to reply in the Polish
language, which excited great shouts of joy among
the people, who considered his speaking their na-
tive language a sufficient motive to their affection
for him. But the new king, in reality, possessed
little talent for captivating the mind ; and his
first levee, which was held on the day following.

LETTERS ON POLAND.

presaged no good. " Sigismund appeared," says

the autlior, " in a Spanish drees, instead of the Po-

^ lish, with the proud air of a Spaniard. His

' countenance was Btately — the bloom of youth

• glowed on his cheek ; but a cold and indifferent

• temper sullied its charms. This haughty disposi-
i tion the Poles interpreted to be the effect of the
' servile education he had received in his father's

■*■ iociety."

Nearly in the beginning of this reign (in 1590)
►the Turks threatened Poland with war, on ae-

• count of the depredations committed ou their
country by the Coasacks. The Poles sent am-
bassadors to hear the complaints of the SnbUme
Porte, and to negotiate. The meeting of the
plenipotentiaries was remarkable. The Grand
Vizier accosted the Poles with the question, If
they had brought haracx. ? by which he meant the
money due to the Sultan from hia tributaries.

■ The ambassadore boldly answered. That Poland
was wont to receive the haracz, not to give it. To
this the Vizier passionately replied : " I give you
two months of indulgence ; within which your
coimtry must either pay 800,000 dollars, or accept
the religion of onr prophet. If not — the hoofs of
our horses shall scatter your land in dust."

Luckily, the intercession of Edward Barton,

• the English ambassador at that time at Constan-
tinople, prevented bloodshed. He is reported, by

EMBASSY TO ENGLAND. S99

our nuUior, to have represented to the Di?aD, that
" Her Majesty, his Queeu, (Elizabethi) atuod ou a
friendly footing with the Polish nation ; that the
EiDglish had frequent commercial intercoui'se with
Poland ; and, should hostilities begin with the
Poles, that England must make a common cause
with her allies." These representations having
had the desired effect, he carried his design so far
as to accomplish the deposition of the Graud
Vizier, and the installation of another more
favourable to the interests of Poland. The Poles
appeased the Sultan for the injuries done by the
inroads of the Cossacks, by presenting to him a
quantity of sable fur.

We see England's intercession, in the cause of
Poland, exerted also on another occasion, for the
important object of terminating the war between
Poland and Sweden. Thomas Roe was the Eng-
lish ambassador, of whom oiu- author relates that
he, in a letter, gave offence to the petty pride of
Gustavus Adolphus, by bestowiug on liim pro-
miscuously the title of Majestas, and that of Se-
renitas, which the King resented by refusing to
give him audience.

After this, let us now advert to a Polish em-
bassy in England. The name of the ambassador
was Dzialinski. He arrived in London (in 1597)
during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, being sent
to complain of an interruption of the PoUsh com-

300

LETTEES ON POLAND.

merce with Spain by the English cruizers. But,
instead of translating from the Polish the account
of his interview with the Queen, which is nearly
the same as that in Camden's History, I prefer
adducing the original letter from Robert Cecil to
the Earl of Essex, as containing more minute and
curious details. *

" There arrived, three days since, in the city,
an ambassador out of Poland, a gentleman of ex-
cellent fashion, wit, discourse, language, and per-
son. The Queen was possessed by some of our
new counsellors, that are as cunning in intelli-
gence as in decyphering — that his negotiation
tendeth to a proposition of jwace. Her Majesty,
in respect that his father, the DiJie of Finland,
had so much honoured her, besides the liking she
had of this gentleman's comeliness and qualities,
brought to her by report, did resolve to receive
him publicly, in the Chamber of Presence, where
most of the earls and noblemen about the Court at-
tended, and made it a great day. He was brought
in, attired in a long robe of black velvet, well
- jewelled and buttoned, and came to kiss her Ma-
jesty's hands where she stood under the state.

• Thia letter is an extract from Burghley's MSS. in the
I 'British Museum, Vol. LXXXV. which was, for the first lime,
f yginaled in Uie Edinburgh Magazine, Vol. I. ji. 29, I have
* changed Ita antiquated orthography into the modern.

EMBASSY TO £^^51X0.

301

from whence he straight retired ten yards off,
and then began his oration aloud iu Latin, with
such a gallant countenance, aa in my life I never
beheld. The effect of it was this, that ' the
King hath sent him to put her Majesty in mind
of the ancient confederacies between the Kings of
Poland and England — that never a monarch in
Europe did willingly neglect their friendship —
that he had ever friendly received her merchants
and subjects of all quality — that she had suffered
his to be spoiled, without restitution ; not for lack
of knowledge of these violences, but out of mere
injustice, not caring to minister remedy, notwith-
standing many particular petitions and letters re-
ceived ; and to confirm her disposition to avow
these courses, (violating both the la,w of nature
and nations,) because there were quarrels between
her and the King of Spain, she, therefore, took
upon her, by mandate, to prohibit him and his
countries, assuming thereby to herself a superiority
(not tolerable) over other princes, nor was he de-
termined to endure, but rather wished her to
know, that if there were no more than the ancient
amity between Spain and him, it were no reason
to look that his subjects shoidd be impedited,
much less now when a strict obligation of blood
had so conjoined him with tlie illustrious house of
Austria.' Concluding, that if her Majesty would
not reform it, he would.

LETTERS ON POLAND.

" To this I swear by the living Grod, that her
. Majesty made one of the best answers, extempore
in Latin, that ever I heard, being much moved to
be 80 challenged in public, especially so much
against her expectation. The words of her be-
ginning were tliese ; ' Surely I can hardly be-
lieve, that if the King himself were present, he
could have used such a language, for if he should,
I must have thought, that his being a king not of
BO many years, and that (noit de jure sanguinu,
aed jure electionis, imo noviter electus) may hap-
pily leave him uninformed of that course which
his father and ancestors have taken with us, and
which peradveuture shall be observed by those
that shall live to come after him ; and as for you,
(said she to the ambassador,) although I perceive
you have read many books to fortify your argu-
ments in this case, yet I am apt to believe that
yovL have not lighted upon the chapter that pre-
■ (KTibeth the form to he used between kings and
|| princes ; but were it not for the place you hold,
to have so publicly an imputation thrown upon
our justice, which as yet never failed, we would
answer this audacity of yours in auoUier style ;
and for the particulars of your negotiations, we
will appoint some of om- council to confer with
yon, to see upon what grounds tliis clamour of
yours hath his foundation, who hath showed your-
self rather a herahl than an ambassador.' I as-

EBIBASSY TO ENGLAND. 303

sure your Lordahip, though I am not apt to won-
der, I muijt confess before the Uving Lord, that I
never heard her (when I kuew lier spirits were in
passion) speak with better moderation in my life.

" You will think it strange that I am thus idle,
as to use another person's hand ; I assure you I
have hurt my thumb at this hour ; and because
the Queen told me she was sorry you heard not his
Latin and hers, I promised her to make you par-
taker of as much as I could remember, being, as I
knew, the worst you could expect from her, and
yet the best could come from any other. If, there-
fore, this my letter find you, and that you write
back, I pray you take notice that you were pleas-
ed to hear of her wise and eloquent answer.

" Queen Ehzabeth having rebuked the ambas-
sador for his vehement harangue, quitted tlie
throne with these words : ' My Lords will coin-
municate to you my will,' and witlidrew. The
mediation of Burghley, Cecil, and Fortescue, re-
conciled her iMajesty to the interests of Poland ;
and the indignation of a virgin-queen against a
young handsome ambassador proved not to be so
dangerous as it appeared to forebode at the com-
mencement." *

" A somewhat similar accident happened (in I'lSli) to Mr
Fench, the English ambassador in'Poland, whom the Poles re-
fused to acknowledge as such for his bold remonstrances be-
fore the Senate against the measureaof the Polish government.

304

LETTERS ON POLAND.

Our author begins the history of the year 1392

by giving an account of a remarkable diet. He

.avows, that " it was an unexampled instance in

.^history, even among the freest nations, to see the

.king stand a delinquent, and the people his accu-

L;sers and his judges." Such, however, was now the
case. An instance of freedom, the practice of which

, .4n France was lately followed by a convulsion of
the whole country. Among the transgressions
bi'ought, as charges against the Polish King,
- were his childish occupations ; such as playing
.ball, planting melons, and so forth, which the
Poles thought unworthy of a king, and had never
seen exemplified in any before him. A leading

' 'Recusation, however, was, that of his having form-
ed a secret project of surrendering Poland to the
Austrian Archduke, and returning to Sweden.
We shall see how the Primate Kamkowski re-
bukes him iu the Senate. His speech exhibits, in

, strong characters, the proud spirit of the Polish

> jiobles ; and still more the unchristian haughti-

I jiess of that High-Priest. This is the beginning

l^^it:—

I . " Sire ! I see the body of our republic suffering

y deep wounds. The King, our head, is offended at
his being accused of artful machinations. The

I nation is offended with your Majesty's scheme to
betray our republic to foreign princes, and to

il .abandon it. But these wounds 1 am far from

SWEDISH WAS.

305

thinking to be mortal ; we can heal them when
we choose. We have the oath of your Majesty ;
and you ought to remember the fate of your pre-
decessor Henry, who, for having broken it by
his flight, perished in ignominy. Sire ! you reign
over a free nation — over a high-bom race of
nobles ; there are none in the world who can
equal them. Are you not aware that you stand
higher than the king, your father, whose subjects,
as every one knows, are but peasants ? Remem-
4*er the words of our King Stephen : ' I shall,'
said he, ' one day humiliate those petty Swedish
kings, and prescribe them conditions upon which
they ought to act.' "

From 1592 to 1605 we find the Poles engaged
in different expeditions against the Tartars, Turks,
WaUachians, and Swedes, all ending creditably to
their valour. The descriptions of battles are not,
indeed, a favourable province for the display of
the genius of the historian, nor is this subject, on
account of its usual monotony, attractive for every
reader. Yet as valour does not among every peo-
ple appear under the same aspect, and is common-
ly tinctured with the peculiarities of national cha-
racter, I shall here extract one or two anecdotes
as examples.

" During the war with the Swedes in Livonia,
the Fort of Duneraunde was but feebly garrison-
ed. The force consisted only of about one hun-

I.£TTBKfi OH VDI1.AND.

dred Polish recruits and forty Scotchmen. The
Swedish General Mansfeld, infonncd of tjjcir small
Wimbers, summoned Bialozor their leader to sur-
render, as tht; only means of safety for him and
the garrison. ' Shoidd you, however,' added he>
' persevei'e in resisting, not a living soid shidl
escape the edge of my sword, and posterity will
*eek in vain for the ruins of the Fort Dune-
ttinnde.' The intrepid Pole thus answered tliia
fcaughty summons : ' I pardon to youthful jtars
this impetuosity and insolence. Whoever thou
tat, I neither know nor care. The usurper Charles
fe not Titus Vespfisianus, nor will our Port be
Jerusalem. A Pole defends Dunaniunde ; if thou
hast never fought with him, come and fight.' "

" During the same war, while the Swedish king,
in a village near Riga, gave a splendid ^est to the
ofikrers of his army, in order to cheer their cour^
1^ for the approaching battle, a prisoner was
brought before them. His name was Kraiew^kt,
)l Lithuanian nobleman. His bold countenance —
his splendid dress and armour. — the leopard's skin
thrown over his shoulders, — in short, his maitial
appearance, undaunted by his situatiOTi, excited
the admiration of the n-hole company. When the
GleDeral Mansfeld could not refrain from expresa-
ing his feelings in words, the Swedi^ king re-
I ■^ed with anger. * Put on your own shonlders
Ifee skin of a wolf, and you shall look as terriWe

WAS. IN RUSSIA. Hyj

as thin fdiow Qow oppeai's in your eyes.' " The
captive is then said to have accosted tlie king,
without wniting to be previously addreesed : " Sire,
the Polish army is not numerous ; it consistB only
of SdOO men, and besides is fatigued by long jour-
neys : Our HetiiiED will nevertheless not avoid an
engagement with you." — " Thy Hetman," replied
the Swedish king, " must then be a iQadinan."
The king, somewhat discomposed by his new guest,
showed him, however, the civility of placing him
at the table with his own oilicei's. After the feast,
he immediately marched, with 10,000 infantry ajid
4000 cavalry, towards Kirchholm, to meet the
Hetman ; and it happened according to the cap-
tive's prediction, that his army was totally defeat-
ed, and he himself narrowly escaped to his fleet,
where, hudiug the captive Kraiewski, he stabbed
him. This victory of the Poles was at that time
so celebrated, that congratulations were sent fi-om
all quarters to the King of Poland, from Pope Paul
v., the Emperor Rudolphus, James I. King of
England, the Sultan of Turkey, and Shah Abbas
of Persia.

From 1609 to 1619 the whole of ^e attention
of the Poles was directed towards Russia. This
empire, which had, for two centuries, groaned un^
der the heavy yoke of the Tartars, was for a time
governed by the despotic sceptre of a usurper
luuned Bturis Gudenow. After his deatit, his son,
Theodore, a youth of sixteen years of age, sue-

8d8 LTTTERS ON POLAND.

ceeded ; but, unable to hold the Boyare in awe,
he soon was assassinated in revenge for his father's
tyranny. After him three Demetriuses, pretend-
ers to the throne, successively appeared, and fell
also, one after another, victims of their ambition.
Russia then became a discordant chaos of dlssen-
tJon. Lacerated by the party spirit of her Bo-
yars, and oppressed by a new usurper, 8zuy8ki, she
looked to Poland for relief. Vladislaus, the son
of Sigismund, was, as I have formerly remarked,
chosen Czar ; but his protracted departure, on an
occasion which admitted of no delay, estranged
from him the minds of the Russians. The Poles
fought many battles in his cause, and took Smo-
lensko and Moscow. Some detachments of their
army pushed their victories as far as Susdal and
Caucasus. But, notwithstanding so many advan-
tages, they were unable to establish Vladislaus in
the throne of which the imprudence of his father
had bereft him. The House of Romanow, which
is that of the present emperor, began from that pe-
riod to reign over Russia, whose fortune it was.
after the lapse of two succeeding centuries, to sub-
jugate Poland, because a Polish king had before
neglected to extend Poland's ascendancy over Rua-

ij Allow me now to take notice of some incidents
which occurred, during this period, fraught with
Poland's subsequent fate. The first that claims

WAE IN KUSSIA.

309

our attention is the departure nf Vladislaus front
Warsaw to Moscow, and especially the farewell
speech of the Primate Gembicki, addressed to him
in the cathedral, before the royal family and the
senators. I shall translate a passage from it, as
containing a specimen of national apostolic elo-
quence.

" Prince, as you are about to leave us, and we
must part with you, our hearts overflow both
with joy and with sorrow. With how many dan-
gers is the path of your life beset ; and with how
many misfortunes ! Not in battles alone are they
encountered ; but even in the serene hours of peace-
Learn how temerity differs from valour, and flat-
tery from sincerity. You will be accompanied by
men distinguished by their probity and wisdom,
who will assist you with their counsel. Let no
irivolous and corrupted minds have access to you,
or share your con6dence. Act with wisdom and
you win prosper. Such was the conduct of Vla-
dislaus of Wama, of Casimir, and Albertus, when
they were nearly of your age. What Heaven has
in store for you it woxdd be presumptuous in man
to inquire. If it is your destiny to sit on the
throne of the Russian empire, be it your great
study to govern the people with justice and mild-
ness ; — yet, never forget the land that gave you
birth J nor the kingdom over which your predeces-
rule^, the glorious Piasts and Jagellons;

sio

LETTERS ON VOLANU.

whei'e their aaheBSi'B ^itombed; ^t^erejrour royal
&tlier now reigns ; antl where a nation lives which
Bccompauies yon with affection aiid love. I decuB,
j Dostnim, melioribua iitere fotis !"

The second pawage I shall tranelate relates to
the organization of a body of volunteer cavalry,
named, after the commander, Lissou'czyhi. They
were not to receive any pay, which became a bur-
thensorae object for a nation engaged in pei-petua!
wan ; but were to subsimt by rapine and plunder.
At that time, the most renowned chieftains were
not scrupulouii about the choice of meane, provid-
ed they could obtain their end. The chief of these
volunteers was Lissowski, a Lithuanian nobleman,
distinguished by his superior courage in different
cam])aigus. The hope of impunity and of rapine
enticed many adventurers to join this corps. Lie-
sowaki having mustered a considerable number of
them, addressed them in the following words ;

" Your king and your country have devoted
you to hardships and to danger ; but, in compen-
eation, they allow you liberties and rewards,
which they prohibit to others. Coiu-age and the
BWord muat gain you the obji^ct of your reward.
These present you with brighter prospects than
your pountry is able to afford. The path on
wliich you are about to enter is unusual. If there
is one among you who would hesitate to rush on
the cannon pointed against him, and singly to en-

WdS IN HUSSld. yil

counter ten of the enemyt oi who would uut, at
uiy orders, be the first to scale the walls of a hoa-
tile city, or to plunge into deep nnd rapid streams,
k4 hira be gone— we cannot want him. Your
accoutrements must be this, — a musket, a sword,
a bow, arrowe, and a spear. ThuB must ye mount
on a swift and strong steed. No needless bag-
gage, — ^no wagons, — no "servants, will i suffer.
All youi' wants you must supply for yourselves.
I require no intricate evtJutious, or nice manteu-
vree. To attack the enemy intrepidly — to dis-
band yourselves when necessary— to counterfeit
flight, and to retui-n, — this is ail you have to do.
You shall have rest when occasion permits— on
emergencies your labour ehaU not know night and
day. Henceforth, your only ambition must be to
pursue the foe wherever he is lodged — to bum
villages, and plunder dtiee — to drive off the cattle
and the flocks — to make all captive, or to spare
neither sex nor age."

This )>and, headed by such a leader, knew no
fear, and heetled no dangers. They were desig-
nated by the najne of Stfftcency, or the doomed
troop. After the death of their leader, they long
TOntimied to exist under his name. When (heir
Seivice was not required in their own country,
they, enrolled themselves in that of foreign powersT
Accordingly, we find thorn often in Austria, Bo-

«p

312

LETTERS ON POLAND.

hernia, and Hungary, epreading terror and dis-
may.

The third and last passage I shall quote is that
of the triumphal entry of Zolkiewski into War-
saw, conducting the Czar Szuyski captive, after
the taking of Moscow.

" The senate and the people," says the author, "re-
ceived theking,onhisretum from Russia, withjoy-
Their joy still increased, when they saw the Het-
man Zolkiewski entering the capital in triumphal
parade, in the same manner aa was uaual in
Rome, and conducting the Czar of Russia. His
staff preceded him on horseback, adorned suitably
to the occasion, followed by sixty carriages. In
the last, outvieiug the others in splendour, sat the
Hetman himself, drawn by six milk-white Ara-
bian horses. With him the Czar, and his two bro-
thers. The chief of the guards rode before them.
The people flocked from all quarters to see the il-
lustrious captives. The Czar, with a look in
which sadness was painted, kindly bowed to tlie
gazing multitude. The Patriarch of Moscow,
Sehin the Governor of Smolensko, and other
Russian boyars, were conducted in separate car-
riages. Several regiments of infantry and caval-
ry brought up the whole train. Whilst they
were thug advancing towards the Royal Palace,
Sigismuud on his throne, and the senators in their
seats, expected their aiTival. The Grand Het-

THE CAPTIVE CZAK.

I man entered the Great Hall, leading the Czar by
the hand, and his brothers following. A murmur
of mournful joy arose in the Hall. Tears water-
ed the eyes of many. After a pause of silence,
the Hetman, approaching nearer the throne, de-
livered a modest speech, in which he attributed
all hia successes to the Almighty ; and, commend-
ing his captives to the king, reminded iiim of
mercy and moderation in prosperity. Of himself
and of bis actions he was silent.

The Czar and bis brothers were at first confin-
ed in Warsaw ; subsequently in the Castle of
Gostyn. The painter, DolabeUi, represented, in a
painting of considerable size, both the assault of
Smoleneko and the Cxars led in captivity, with
most accurate likenesses of the persons present on
that occasion. These paintings long ornamented
the halls of the royal palace, till the reign of the
Saxon Augustus, who, being a foreigner, and set-
ting little value on such national monuments,
gave them as a present to Peter the Great. The
Czars, who died soon after their captivity, were
buried in Warsaw, and a splendid monument
was erected to their memory. It does not now
exist, having been broken to pieces by the rude
order of the Russian ambassador Repnin. The

I epitaph, which has been preserved, I here give aa
z

$14 L£TTKBS ON fOLAHD.

J«su Christl Dei Filii

R£gU tteguni, Dei Eseicituusi Glurix,

Sigianiuodus III. Rex Polonlic et Suecue,

Eserdtu Moscovitico ad CluBuium CEesOj Afoscovis metro-

poU deditione accepta, Smolcnsco Sepablioe restituttv—

Basileo Szuyscio, Ma^tio Dnci Moacovitt, ct (Vatri elos
Ocnietrio, militis pricfecto, captivis jure belli receptia, et in
Bice Gofitinemi sub cuatodia babitia, ibique vita ftinctis.
Human^e sortis ntemor
Ossa fllonim hue delerre
Et ne, ei regtiante, etiain hoBtes
Injusteque sceptra parantes
Justis sepulturnque cajrcreitt;

A ae, ad publicam posteritatia memoriun,
Regni sui nomen,
Extructo Trophieo
Depani jusMt.

Anno a partu Virginia MDCXX.
Hegnorum Polonioe XXXIU.
Suecia XXVI.
The wars with Russia being ended, we find
tfie Poles involved in a war with the Turks and
Tartars. The Cossacks again gave the occasion
for it. This predatory set of people had long
been addicted to plunder on the shores of the
Black Sea. Sailing in their small boats caDed
rxayki, they had often spread alarm in Constanti-
nople and Asia Minor,— plundered Trebizond and
Synope,— killed the Pasha of Cilicia, and sunk
two of hia vessels. Amurath the Great uaed to

WAm WITH THB TlfllKS.

aitt

say, that, in qiite of all tho potentates in Europa,
he coiild Bleep oit hoth ears ; but these gadfliee
(the Cossacks) would scarcely suffer him to sleep
on either. At this time they had plimdercid the
Crimea. The injured Tartars looked for sueeoiur
to the Turks ; and the faith of Islam, consolidat-
ing' the ties of their unioD, ranged them under
the standard of Mahomed against the Oiaoitra.
Thus Poland having constantly to control the
buoyant passion of her subjects, was besides com*
pelled to ^erd herself against the inroads o£ the
barbarians, and watch carefully over her domestic
hearth. This necessity of vigilance devekqied in
the Poles a courage and intrepidity which raised
their military achievements to the high models of
the Greeks and Romans. They were prodigi
vitae for their country. Their O^ctsyTina is quite
eynouymous with the Patria of the Roman citi-
zens, and the Civi» Bomanua with the Polish
Ohywatei. Their annals evince, that " Dulce
pro patria mori" was never a mere school-phrase
with the Pole, but a feeling of his heart. The
freedom which they enjoyed in private life, end
with which they signalized their actions in public,
dignified still more their patriotism, and often
raised it to sublimity. Their victories, aa well
as their defeats, excite admiratioD ; and Bometimes
it is doubtiiil which of them do it more. Nu-
merous instances of (he latter might be adduced

316

LETTERS ON POLAND.

from hi6tx>ry ; but I ehall confine myself to the
reign of Sigismund alone, and select two samples.
The one ie Zolkiewsld, who, after having brought
the captive Czars to the capital, was next de-
spatched with 7000 men to oppose an army con-
sisting of 150,000 Turks and Tartars. He,
nevertheless, began by obtaining some advanta-
ges over them in different encounters. But,
no human valour being able to bear up against
such inequality of numbers, he resolved to retreat,
and was for nearly a fortnight harassed day and
night by swarms of Turks and Tartars, and by tlie
greatest enemy of man — famine. Uisdaiuing to
surrender himself captive, he determined to fight
and to die. He fell; and his army shared his
fate — only a few fell into the hands of the enemy,
proti-acting their hves in captivity, or submitting
to an inglorious death. This fatal event took
place at Cecora, iu 1620 ; and the recollection of
it affects the Poles with sadness, no less than the
battle of Macieiowice, the PoUsh Culloden, in
1794. To avenge this unhappy but glorious de-
feat, and to save the country from utter ruin,
Chodkiewicz, another famous chief, was despatch-
ed ; but his force was also small. In order to give
you a specimen of military eloquence, I shall ven-
ttire to Introduce him here, addressing his small
army on the eve of the battle, to prepare them for
jnctory or death, the latter of which was the more

StEECH TO THE AB.MY. 817

Jikely. On reading this passage, one seems to feel
a similar sensation as on reading the account of
the three hundred Spartans, with Leonidas at their
head, in the Pass of TTiermopyhe.

" It is my fortune, Soldiers," he said, " and the
necessity of my country is such, that I again must
lift up my sword. My strength is impaired by
hardships ; my limbs weighed down by years.
In once more becoming your leader I only obey
the call of my country. For, what other motive
could induce me to cover these grey hairs with
this iron helmet ? Distinction, honours, all the
objects of man's ambition I have possessed, they
have even been thrust on me. Nothing re-
mains that I can desire, except the glory of dying
for my country. I am ready then to sacrifice my
life, and with you by my side I cannot fall inglo-
rious. Soldiers ! You are on the eve of battle.
Keflect that you ought to be the shield of your
native land, and the avengers of the death of your
feUow-citizens. The ground on which we stand
is yet reeking with the blood of Zolkiewski, and
as far as the eye can reach, the weather-beaten
bones of your unbiiried kinsmen lie widely scatter-
ed. They do not solicit your tears and lamenta-
tions — they call for revenge ! The blood which
you will shed — the enemies which you will kill,
win he so many expiatory victims to their manes.
The devastations and insults of the infidels should

318

LETTEHS ON POLAND.

Bo longer bo borne with impunity. Even now,
whiie I address you, the fierce Noradin, and hiB
savage hordes, spread murder and desolation over
Russia and Podulja. Whilst you are here, they
are bumlitg your villages— slaughtering your pa-
rents, your relatioQE, and friends, and are dragging
your daughters and sisters into shameful captivity.
This day will be decisive for us. It matters little
whether Wallachia is ours or llieirs ; but it does
matter whether Poland shall be free and indepen-
dent, or the standard of Mahomet wave on the
banks of the Vistula ; — ^whether Noradio shall
with impunity profane your churches, abolidi
your statutes, and make you his slaves ; — ^whedier
you shall preserve any longer the language your
ancestors s[>oke, or speak that of the barhariaoa !
Why has Osman stiired up so many naticns
in Asia and Africa ? — Is it not to make you
bend beneath Ms yoke ? But be not a&aid
of these multitudes, and this vain oriental pa-
geantry: the one ia but a mob, the other an
empty shadow. They are effeminate in habits,
in dress, and in mind. Their bodies relaxed by
luxury, can they withstand the ^our of the an-
cient SarmatianSi-^mf those Poles who formerly
fixed the iron land-marks on the Dnieper and the
Kibe, to mark the extent of tfieir conquests ?
These elephants, the^e herds of camels, laden witlt
the dainties of the East, will disperse at the very

CONCLDUON.

8lg'

' aound uf j^our clarions-— «t die gleam of foxut
tjnas. So soon, then, as I give you the word,
Poles and Ldthuaniana, advance and bravely meet
the foe. Besides, what would it avail you to he-
[ Mtate ? You ha^'e no diance of retreat. Here
' Adwh the rapid Dniester, — there rise insurmount-
able rocks — -and before you stand the Turks and
the Tartars, You are surrounded upon aJl sides ;
but glory opens a boimdiess space for heroes.
Breathes there amongst you the soul of a coward,
desperate necessity must make him brave. (Here,
lifting his hand to Heaven, he continued.) And
I Thou, justice of Heaven ! Thou that givest their
thrones to kings, and victories to armies, arise
i^ainst the blasphemers of thy name : help us to
revenge ; and with the motion of thy imger,
smite the impious bands of the iniidels !"

Here he ended. Courage and devotion filled

every bosom. The army having thai received

F the sacrament, and the signal being given to

' mai'ch, raised the Se^arodsuca, a solemn hymn to

the Virgin.

This hymn, and that of the Gloriosa Oomina,
were usually sung by the Poles before battle.
They are both addressed to the Virgin Mary, who
is held to be the protectress of the Polish king-
dom. And on this occasion, it cannot be denied,
tliat the Poke were well protected ; for, whether
by tiliti good will of the Vii^n, or the good steel

820

LETTERS ON POtAND.

of the Poles, 75,000 men obtained a complete vic-
tory over an allied army of 400,000 Turks and
Tartars. This battle was fought near Chocdm in
1631.

But this letter, if farther extended, would be-
come too long ; although I cannot presume to
think I have done suHicient justice to our author.
His history is too closely connected for detached
quotations, and derives much beauty from the re-
flection of the parts on each other. In selecting
the preceding passages, I rather considered their
brevity and the information they conveyed, than
any striidng excellence above the rest. Had I in-
tended to show our historian in an advantageous
and brUhant hght, I shoidd have quoted bis chap-
ter of the retreat of Zolkiewski, — the description
of the battle near Kirchholm, famed for the defeat
of the Swedes, — the cruel slaughter of the Poles at
Moscow during the wedding festival of the Pseudo-
Demetrius, and their imparalleled sufTeringa by
famine when besieged in the Kremlin, — the one
exhibiting a spectacle of the Sicilian Vespers, or
that of St Bartboloraew's Night, — the other the
terrific aspect of the famishing family of Ugo-
linos. Horses and even dead bodies constitut-
ed their food. But even such sad though splen-
did, passages of our historian could scarcely sa-
tisfy you ; they would be but translations, such
aa those from the Greek or Latin, the best of

CONCLUSION.

32i

which are faint representations of their originals.
Every language has its own charms, which cannot
be transferred into another. One who knows
Pope's English Homer, and Taylor's English
Plato, does not yet know Homer the Ionian, or
Plato the Athenian. I did not even intend to de-
cide upon the extent of onr author's abilities as a
historian. I must caution you against such a
mistake. His work is a national monument, best
understood and best felt by the natives, as the
history of Herodotus was felt by the Greeks, and
the poems of Burns are by his own countrymen.
The natives are the best judges of the merits of their
national literary productions. Thcyjudgebothby
the more comprehensive knowledge of their own
affairs, and by the peculiar bearing they have upon
their feelings, whereas a foreigner must ever be
inferior from his want of acquaintance and sym-
pathy. This is one of the last of Mr Niemce-
wicz's works, by which he has augmented the se-
ries of his writings, and added a new wreath to
his literary renown.

In a short time, another history of the same
reign of Sigismund III. is to be published, writ-
ten by Siarczynski, the Canon of WarsaW'. The
history of Niemcewicz related chiefly to the poli-
tical events in Poland, while that of the Canon is
rather calculated to give a picture of the internal ■
affairs of that country. It will appear in fourj

LETTERS ON POLAND.

Volumes. The first is to contaiu an account of
the state of religion and learning in Poland ; tlie
flecoiid. of celebrated men of all ranks and profes-
sions ; tlie third, of the relations betwixt Poland and
foreign countries, wars, treaties, and losses of pro-
vinces ; the fourth, a statistical account of Polaiid,
jhra* commerce, manufactures, customs, and man-
beis.

Nos quoque floruimus ! And, what tlie Scottish
bard says of his own native land.

Old times were changed, old manners gone,
A stranger filled the Stuart's throne,

may well be applied to Poland. Every nation
bears in itself the seeds of its greatness and de-
cline, of its bloom and tlecay. On some, the hard
hand of destiny has manifested its influence, and
on others it will manifest it in the progress of
ages. The Polish, as well as the Scottish nation,
and some others, have terminated their separate
career ; but even after the change of their political
form of being independent representatives in the
■council of nations, they stiU survive in the pecu-
liarity of their national spirit, and feelings ori-
ginating in their former existence are at every
■moment evolved from their bosoms.

323

LETTER XI.

'' Guide du Fo^ageur en Pologne et dans la liSpublique de
Cracovie^^Varsovie — Glucksberg, 1 320 *" -^ Tniroduethw'^
Cracow— The Salt Mine* of WkUczka^The Caverns ff
Cmumiee — Warsaw *• NiAprow — Ptdavfy^-^PosUng'-^
Miscellaneous Remarks^^The J^tvs.

Dear Sm,
As cQimecited with the preceding letters, I send
you the following artide^ which apjpeared iijt
Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine for June 182^
written by a £dend from information furnished hy
me, containing also a few additional materials*

Books bearing so faumUe a title as the pw-
sent, however useful to die travjdler ia the
oountry they describe, are seldom consulted for
irformation or amusement by those who can only
travel by <iieir own firesideft««*aad, in tnith, they
are very rarely worthy of such consulta,tion, thek
sole intentkm being not to give full information,
but to facilitate and direct those who widb to gam

LETTEHS ON POLAN

I it for themselves by actual auil personal examina-
tion. Paterson's Road-book would give but a
poor idea of England. Poland, however, inteiist^
ing as that ill-fated kingdom is, has never been
sufficiently described in works of a suiierior class ;
and we found insuperable difficulties in our seden-
tary peregrinations through it, from the want of
clear and satisfactory descriptions of the people,
places, and things, in any books we could meet
with. On stating our grievance to a Polish
friend, he was kind enough to send us this Tra-
veller's Guide, with some valuable information of
his own, of which we shall avail ourselves in the
coui'se of our remarks.

This book, as its name imports, is intended as
a guide to foreign travellers in Poland. As usual,
the principal post-roads are marked out, — the
principal towns through which they pass ai-e de-
scribed, — and the objects chiefly worthy of atten-
tion ai-e pointed out, sometimes, it is true, rather
too minutely. In fact, there are many details
■ which can only be interesting to those who use
■tlie book aa a travelling companion, and it is only
■after turning over many pages that any thing
generally interesting can be found. The accounts
are, however, according to our information, can-
did and just, and calculated to give a tolerably
correct idea of the kingdom of Poland, as ii is now
constituted, including tlie territory of the frtfe

TBAVELLER'8 GUIDE.

town, of Cracow. The extensive provinces for-
merly included in that kingdom, but now uiiited
to Russia, Austria, and Prussia, are not described.
To this descriptiou the author has aunexed cer-
tain " notes iustnictives et n^cessaires il ceux qui
voyageut en Pologne ;" and, with all submission,
this is exactly the part of the book which is moat
instructive and necessary for those who have it
not in their power to travel in Poland, and we
shall make use of it in the sequel accordingly.

The book is published anonymously, but is
well known to he the production of the celebrated
General Krasinski, who highly distinguished
himself in the late campaigns. To make it
more generally useful, he has written in the
French language, and his object in undertalc-
ing 80 humble a task was to remove the miscon-
ceptions arising from the prejudice, and perhajs
the malice, which disgraced the accounts of pre-
vious foreign writers. Thus we see, that in Po-
land, as well as in our own country,* the hero,
whose glory it was to defend his native land from
the desolation of war, does not disdain to exercise
his talents in peace to ward off the shafts of envy
or malignity, and to set the character of his coun-
try and his countrymen in a fair and true light

* See Colonel Stewart's Sketches of the Highlanders,

3S6

LETTERS ON POLAND.

before the world. Our Polish friend wriU's to ua
is follows :

" I may remark to you, in general, that my
military countrymen are particularly zealous in
All that concerns the good rnit! honour of their
country. They give celebrity to it in war by
flieir valoiu", and adorn it in peace by their litera-
ry pursuits. Polish literature is greatly indebted
for its increase to their real and superior talents.
I would not here make this remark, were they
only dilettanti in hteratxire and science ; but I can
^ert that they cultivate them thoroughly, and
know as well how to sacrifice to the Nine Sisters
as to Mars. Several years ago, we boasted of a
homely elegiac poet, Godehski. He fell on the
field of battle at JRasxyn, in the year 1809, where
8000 Poles fought against 40,000 Austriane — and
Were victorious. A bard in his tomb could never
have an epitaph more glorious than such a vic-
tory ! — ^Araong the living authors is General
£ropinski, who fought at the side of Kosciuszko
ih the cause of freedom, and now spends the re-
mainder of his life in literary occupations. His
national Tragedy of Lndgat^, so often perform-
ed and generally admired, has established for ever
his fame as a poet ; — and his other productions
have gained him the name of an elegant writer.
Colonel ChodkiewioL followed the path of Addi-
son, by writing the tragedy of Cato. He has dis-

traveller's guide.

327

tiiiguisUed litiaself by different pieces of «pistola-
ty poetry ; but for several years bas been devoU
ing himself to chemical studiee, and has publistied
3 great many of his profound researches. — Gene-
ral Morawski baa lately attracted considerable at-
tention by some original lyrical pieces of poetry
— and also by his admirable skill, and the ele-
gance of his style, in translations iroaa the Ger-
man and French. There are, besides, some other
distinguished names in the military calendar that
might be mentioned, whose eagerness and talents
in Uteraiy pursuits are appreciated by their
countrymen ; but I have named only tlie prin-
cipal ones, whose works are^ looked upon as the
ornaments of national litei-atni-e, and will never
-cease to bo read as long as the Polish language
shall be spoken or understood."

To return to the work before us, it canjiot claim
for its author any such distinguished praise as our
friend bestows on the literary heroes he has men-
tioned. Its subject-matter is hardly worthy of an
author of the rauk of Krasinski, and its language
is foreign — The style is somewliat too elevated ;
but the details are not exaggerated. Its object,
however, which we shall now allow the General
to describe for himself, is good. He says,

" It is melancholy to observe, that Poland, not-
withstanding the renown she has acquired in the
Iriatory <rf the latter ages, botli by the glory of lier

LETTERS ON POLAND.

arms, and by the aacrificea of every kind which
her inhabitants have made to their country, should
be in a manner forgotten in that branch of geo-
graphy which treats of voyages and travels.
Every country, every town of importance, even in
the most remote regions, attracts crowds of curi-
ous and inquisitive persons, anxious to lay before
the public descriptions as accurate as they are mi-
nute ; while Poland, so distinguished for her hos-
pitality, her toleration, and the friendly reception
she aflbrds to strangers whom political convulsions
have driven from their native lands, and who fiy
to her for an asyhim — Poland lias found in the
few travellers who have described her, enemies
and calumniators instead of faithful delineators.
Without reckoning those who, like Mr Neale, pre-
sent in their indecent pictures a silly collection of
absurd calumnies against the nation, and of re-
volting personalities against its inhabitants ;■ —
MM. Delicourt Meh^ and Vautrin, whose disgrace-
ful productions injure only their authors ; — pass-
ing over the letters of M, Uklanski, whose style is
embued with the gall of vengeance, — how many
works upon Poland, published under different
titles by MM. Malte-Bnm, Greorgel, Grafenaur,
Guthrie, Pradt, &c., although of acknowledged
merit, are defective in point of precision. The
most reeent book on this subject, and which is
inoet chiefly resorted to by travellers, is a little

traveller's guide. 329

portable work, printed at Weimar in 1818, under
the title of ' Guide des Voyageurs dans le Nord,'
by M. Reinhard, counsellor of the Grand Duke of
Saxe-Gotha, already well known by several excel-
lent publications of this sort, descriptive of all the
loading states and cities of Europe. This author
passes an eulogium on the national character of
the Poles, and does justice to their hospitality and
other good qualities ; but his descriptions, limited
to a few pages, would have been more correct) if
lie had not ti'usted too implicitly to the veracity of
the authors I liave already mentioned, and if he
had not followed the accounts of travellers, whose
examinations of the country, to judge from Mr
Reinhard's delineations, must have been made more
than twenty years ago. In other respects the work
is useful, and I have adopted it as my model in
general in the following pages.

" Bom in Poland, and poesessing a topographi-
cal knowledge of my country, I have determined
to give such an extent to this work as its object
appeared to me to require. Writing for foreign-
ers, in a language foreign to myself, I have endea-
voured to unite in the work perspicuity with uti-
lity, and I shall be too happy if, while I have no
other merit than that of being the first to present
to the world an exact description of some provinces
of my country, I shall be enabled to make myself
ugeftil to travellers, and to point out to strangers

330

LETTEJiS ON rOI.ANP.

whatever objects in Poland are nuist worthy to ar-
rest their attention."

Our autlior then proceeds in his descriptive
tour, commencing with Cracow, situated on a gen-
tle ascent on the left bank of tbe Viatula, which
divides it into three ports. Th« old town, Cracow,
properly so called, the ancieut capital of Poland,
is one of these parts, Podgorze and Casimir are
the other two, and there are beside suburbs in dif-
ferent directions. One part of the towu of Casi-
mir is inhabited by about 6000 Jews, who ai-e ex-
cluded from the main or old town of Cracow, in
which they are not even allowed to pass the night.
The remains of antiquity which adorned the city
have been in a great measure destroyed by the
Austrians, whose barbarous policy it was to anni-
hilate every monument which might remind the
Poles of the renown of their ancestors. The old
iewii was anciently fortified by a double circle of
walls, and by towers remarkable for the variety of
their forms ; the gates were of Gothic architecture,
and were very elegant ; the Royal Castle or Cita-
del, (ZaniekJ built in the early ages, and formerly
the habitation of tlie kings of Poland, rises splen-
didly conspicuous, and commanding an extensive
prospect, upon a rock called Wawel, in the heai-t
itf the city. But the Austi'ians totally overturned
the ramparts, partly destroyed the gates, and con-
TOTted A e Caatle into barrfldis. M any a tradi-

THAVEM:iin's CJUIDE. 331

tion hovers arcfimd the Minuit Wawel. A cave,
which is still extant, is said to have formerly been
the lair of a wonderful dragon, that spread devas*
tation in tlie surronnding cmuitry.

The Cathedral, which is situated in the centre
of this citadel, is an object of pemliar veneration
to the Poles. " It is," says our autlior, " what the
Capitol was to the ancient Romans, what the Pan-
theon is to France ; in short, it is the precious re-
eqjtacle for the mortal remains of their kings and
their heroes, and it is not without a feeling of re-
spectful veneration, mingled with religious awe,
that one presimies to penetrate its ancient aisles,
where one is surrounded by mausoleums, inscrip-
tive tablets, statues, and chapels decorated with
marble and bronze, and wliere one cannot advance
a step withoiit meeting with some monmnent of
the renown of the countiy, of the valour and vic-
tories of heroes. There repose the venerable
ashes of Boleslaus III. and IV.of VladislaiisLokie-
tek ; of Casimir the Great ; .Tolin Albert ; Stephen
Batory; Sigismundlll.; \nadi8lau8 IV, ; John Ca-
simir; Michel Wiszniowiecki; JohnSobieski ; and
Frederick Augustus II."

In the Chapels of the Sigismunds are deposited
the remains of St Stanislaus, the patron of the
kingdom, and those of the heroic Kosciuszko and
Poniatowski, which have been restored from fo-
reign graves through the intervention of the Em-

332 LETTERS ON POLAND.

■ peror Alexander, (King of Poland,) and are now
deposited in the vatilt of King John Sohiesfci.
Thns valour has joined heroes even in death.
On the summit of the adjacent mount of St Bro-
nislawa, a tumulus of the Carpathian marble has
lately been raised to the memory of Kosciuazko,

Our author proceeds to enumerate and describe
eight churches, {of which, he says, Cracow may
boast of having the finest in Poland,) and other
iplendid and reinarkablepublic buildings; the Aca-
demy, bearing the name of " Daughter of the Sor-
bonne," and possessing alibraryof 30,000 volumes,
and 4000 rare MSS., aa well as a cabinet of natural
history, and an anatomical theatre ; and the pa-
laces of the nobility, which ornament the city.
Am<Hig the last, the Episcopal Palace is particu-
larly worth seeing. Its interior is decorated by
historical paintings, and filled with Pohsh anti-
quities. It is the habitation of the Polish poet
Woronicz, who is Bishop of Cracow. The " Place"
is in the centre of the city. It was formerly the
custom to erect a lofty throne in it on the day af-
ter the coronation of the kings, seated upon which
they received the homage of the tributary princes.
At Cracow there are two fairs every year, which
are well frequented. In the whole territory there
are only 100 national guards, (infantry,) 40 caval-
ry, and 200 civil officers. There is a good deal
of commerce in grain.

'*i,

.AVELLEE'S 6UIDE.

In the neighbourhood many pleasing excursions
may be made, particularly to tlie Salt Mines of
Wieliczka, situated in Austria, a stage from Cra-
cow. The chambers and passages in these mines,
cut out of the pure and sparkling salt, are de-
scribed aa superb. The passages are dry, clean,
and every where high enough for persons to walk
upright. In some places, they open into large ca-
verns, oneof which is in the form of a capacious cha-
pel, with an altai', ornaments, and two monks, ap-
pai'eutly in the act of solemnizing a mass, and a
statue of Augustus III., all cut out of the rock of
salt, which is iu enormous masses, white and red,
and in general most beautifully crystallized. In
one quarter of these mines flows a limpid stream
unmixed by salt.

A second pleasure-trip may be made to the
marvellous caverns of Czaiowice, lying iu the
midst of scenery worthy of melo-dramic imitation.
In the next village, the traveller must provide
himself with a guide to the thick and gloomy fo-
rest, interspersed with rocks and precipices. Af-
ter half an hom-'s walk, there is a descent into a
deep valley, through wliich a rapid sti-eara rolls
its foaming waters, and, at the declivity of a
chff, is the entrance into the caverns. The open-
ing is narrow ; but as soon as he has advanced a
few steps, he finds himself in a large corridor,
leading to a saloon, or spacious grotto, of up-

S34

I.ETTEB8 ON POI.AND.

wanls of fifty toises in <Uaineter, and twelve in
height. From thence, arched vaults conduct, in
different directions, to other apartments of great-
er or less magnitude, so as to make the place a
real subterraneous labyrintli, and dangerous to be
visited without an intelligent guide. Having
paised different contiguous caverns, the visitor
arrives at last at the edge of a precipice, where
lie is stunned witli the noise of a tumultuous tor-
rent of ten toises in depth. The vaults of these
gi-ottos are dark and smoked, sparkling with sta-
lactites at the light of torches. At every step
one meets human bones, which, tradition says,
are the remains of people who sought refuge
there, at diffei'ent times, from the scoui^ of war,
and the ravages of the plague. In the vicinity
is anothw curious cavern, Oycow, and picturesque
ruins of a castle of the same name, once the habi-
tation of Casimir the Great. At the distance of
three English miles from the laet is Piaskowa
^bala, another romantic castle. Near it stands
«n extraordinary production of Nature, a rock
resembling the Club of Hercules, seven toises in
tlircuniference at its base, and four times as much
at its summit, towering into the air, and sorae-
-what deviating from a perpendicular line.

We need not follow the author through the
.small towns on the road to Warsaw, but shall
join him at that capital, which contains 99,000

7ltAV£I,X£Il'S GVTCE.

SS5

I
I
I

souk, independent of the gaiTison, amounting to
20,000 more. It is now the capital of Poland ;
and has been, since the time of Sigismimd III.,
the ordinary residence of her kings. It is situat-
ed on a considerable hill, on the left bank of the
Vistula, and consists of an old and new town, —
suburbs, (which are the most beautiful parts of
the capital,) and four conterminous towns, haWng
each their exclusive privileges, and their respec-
tive town-houses ; — ^their names are Grzybow,
Leszno, Szolec, and Praga. Praga, formerly
of a large extent, was totally destroyed by Suwa-
row in the war of 1794. No less than 20,000
inhabitants, without distinction of sex and age,
were butchered by the cruel soldiery. It was
afterwards rebuilt; but, in the war of 1816, it
was again partly pulled down to make room for
fortifications, and a tete de pont. The present
government is actively rebuilding it upon a beau-
tiful and general plan. Tlie Grand Duke Con-
stantine has there a splendid palace, and usually
represents, as deputy, the citizens of these suburbs
in the General Diet. These, and such like generous
proceedings, heal gradually the wounds formerly
inflicted on the Poles. Praga is separated from
Warsaw by the Vistula, and communicates with
the capital by a flying bridge of 263 toises in
kngtti, which is speedily to give place to a more

336

LETTBBB ON POJLANO.

permanent one in masonry and chain-work, after
a model by Mr Metzel,

The castle, on a lofty and imposing situation,
commands the Vistula and its opposite banks. It
contains many superb and interesting apartments,
adorned with pictures, marbles, and bronzes.
The palaces and public buildings, to judge from
the descriptions, and from the very neat prints
with which this volume is adorned, are very
magnificent. Chaste in their architecture, splen-
did in extent, and classical in their embellish-
ments, they would honour any capital in the
world ; and yet one has never heard of Warsaw
as distinguished for architectural beauty. In the
midst of the large court of the Academy, a statue
of Copernicus was by this time to be erected. The
churches, the hospitals, and the schools, are nume-
rous and handsome. Many of the streets, squares,
and placeSi are spacious and beautiful, some of
them ornamented by statues and pillars. Thor-
waldson is employed on a bronze equestrian statue,
in memory of Prince Joseph Poniatowski, to be
placed in some one of the principal squares.
There are some streets in the city, as iu all places
of antiquity, which are narrow, and the houses of
which are very high ; but improvements are daily
made in these particulars.

Our author enimierates the merits of the differ-
ent inns, coffee-houses, restaurateurs, &c. in erei-y

TRA.y£LX.3SU a GUIDE. SS7

place he describes, with all the zest of a connois-
seur ; and perhaps the capital may boast of many
which are of the first order. We must, however,
take all this cumgrano, especiallyas to accommoda-
tions on the road ; for we have been cautioned
against believing the bonnes auberges, &c. of our
author to mean what we call good inns in Eng-
land. They do very well for the natives, who
carry their beds and proper accommodations with
them on their journeys, — as is the custom in
other northern eoimtries, as Prussia, Russia, and
even some -psx\s of Gei'many. In England, where
the population is great, and where constant and
frequent intercourse is kept up for the sake of
business or pleasure, the encouragement to inn-
keepers is great, and the inns and their accommo-
dations proportionably good. This is not the
case in other northern climes, where the innkeeper
does not feel it worth hia while to risk any ex-
pence upon the accommodation of his employer.
Indeed, our author himself observes, at p. 94,
tliat although there is some improvement in the
inns, "it is still almost indispensable for a foreigner
travelling in Poland to take his bed along with
him, which he could rarely omit with safety, even
in the towns."

Several newspapers and literary magazines are
published at Warsaw. There are many well
stocked booksliops ; — 15 [irinting presses ; — two

LETTEES ON POLAND.

lithographic establishments ; — and several en-
gravers ; — academies for designing after nature ;
—and an annual exhibition of paintings, which
last year contained 180 works in painting and
engraving ; — a royal university, foimded in 1816
by the Emperor Alexander : — an academy for the
instruction of the deaf and dumb ; — an academy
of music ; — a dramatic school ; — and four schools
on the Lancasterian plan ; — a society of benevo-
lence ; — and a charitable institution ; — a society
of agriculture, and its practical school, in Mari-
mont. Among the numerous manufactures of
the place, it is remarkable that there are above 50
coach-making establishments, — in which branch
there is a considerable export trade. In Warsaw
there are 220 streets, and nearly iOOO houses —
3000 of which are of masonry, covered with tiles,
and the remainder are of wood. The wooden
houses are gradually disappearing, and give room
for new and splendid buildings in stone ; and it is
not now lawful to build in wood. The streets
are paved with various sized stones, the inequali-
ty of which, although they are carefully repaired,
renders them unpleasant to' foot passengers. The
city and its suburbs are lighted with argand
lamps. The hackney coaches are of different
descriptions, as Fiacres, Doroszki ; and in winter
the Traineaus, which drive with rapidity from

\
\

TBAVELI^A'S 60IDE. 889

place to place at the moderate rate of a shiUing an
hour.

Twice a^year there is a fair at Warsaw, much
frequented by merchants from different countries.
St James' Day is the term of contracts ; and War-
saw is then filled by people from the remotest
provinces of Poland, who come to transact their
business of purchases and sales of estates, and to
arrange money matters between the capitalists and
creditors. Similar contracts are yearly transacted
in all the principal towns which formerly belong-
ed to the kingdom of Poland, as Leopol, Wilna,
Cracow, and Kiow. The principal ones are now
in the last town. The usual public promenades
in Warsaw are the garden of Saxe and of Kra-
sinski, both occupying a considerable space with-
in the city. The avenues of trees, conducting
to Uiazdow, may rival in effect those of the
Prater, near Vienna ; and on Sundays and festi-
vals are crowded with parties of people, who re-
sort thither for recreation. At Uiazdow may be
seen a well provided botanic garden. There are
many fine country residences in the environs ; but
by far the most remarkable are Lazienki, the
country seat of the last king, Stanislaus, adorned
with numerous paintings of the first masters, and
with marble busts of all the Polish kings, — and
Ftllanow, formerly the country residence of John
Sobieski, now a property of Count Potocki. The

LETTEES OH POLAND.

palace is in the Italian style, and was entirely
constructed by the captive Turks. It is but-
rounded by an extensive park ; and there still
exist several Vistiilean poplars which were planted
by the hand of John Sobieski. This sort of pop-
lar is peculiar to Poland ; and is called the Vistii-
lean, from its being found in greatest profusion on
the banks of the Vistula. Their huge trunks,
standing at a distance from each other, rearing
their summits high above the other trees of the
forests, and spreading bold branches often bereft
of leaf and bark by age, add much to the gran-
deur of the aspect of that vast river.

We shall extract one more description, and
then talfe leave of that department. Tliis passage
je not from the pen of Krasinski, but is extracted
by him from another work. It savours some-
what of the style of the Arabian Nights Enter-
tainments ; but our readers must judge for them-
selves. It is a description of Arcadia, a country
seat of the Princess Radzivill, near Nieborow.

" It is to the exquisite taste of this lady that
this place is indebted for its magnificence ; all
that Art and Nature have produced of rarity and
price, in the most distant countries, are brought
together here , and it seems as if they had con-
tested for pre-eminence in the production of their
treasures.

" You enter by a house having the appearance

I
I
I

travei.i.eb'8 guide. 341

of a Dutch farm ; scarcely have you crossed the
threshold of the door, which proves to be the en-
trance of a palace of crystal, when yon believe
yourself to be in an enchanted hall ; — ^porphyry —
bronze — mirrors — crystals, and marble, disposed
with skill and taste, complete the illusion. On
leaving this splendid apartment, you pass by a
shady walk to a grotto, which you reach by
steps contrived in the' enormous masses of rock of
which the grotto is formed. The grotto serves as
an entrance to a building, whose appearance is
that of a Gothic castle, adorned with armour and
chivalric devices ; and which seems to have been
the residence of some preux chevalier of the oldeu
time. Leaving this, you pass by an open arcade
to a bold arch in the Grecian style, which serves
as a frame to the charming landscape formed by
the evergreen thickets which surround the temple.
The gates of the temple are of precious materials,
(acajou,) and are opened by a key of gold, en-
riched with diamonds. The vestibule is in the
form of a rotunda, lighted by a cupola in the
daytime, and by a Cupid, in a niche, bearing a
torch, at night. On advancing, you are surprised
to see the rotunda change into a suit of apart-
ments. The first of these is a museum, contain-
ing every thing that is most curious — in cameos
— .Etruscan vases — friigments of inscriptions — bas
reliefs — tripod candelabras, &c, The imposing as-

S4B

LETTEBS ON EOIiAMD.

pect of the temple strikes you, on your entrance,
with a sort of religious awe ; and carries you, ia
imagination, back to the days of the oracles of
old. The grandeiir of the vase and of the cupola
charms and seduces the eye, which reposes with
delight upon those walls of white marble, adorned
with Corinthian cohimns, and statues of Vestal
virgins, guarding the sacred fire which bums up-
on the altar. The barmonl&us tones of an organ
increase the charm ; and, in the midst of the
sweetest sensations that the soul can enjoy, you
find yourself, as it were by enchantment, hurried
out of the sanctuary; — suddenly your sight is
plunged upon (ploDgt!;e sur) a lake, through which
a river forces its way, bearing along the foam oc-
casioned by its recent fall, near the ruins of a
handsome aqueduct, which serves as a bridge to
enable you to make the tour of the Jake, and to
obtain a view of the facade of the temple.

" Following the flowery banks of this river,
you reach an isle, where there is placed a monu-
ment of black marble, on which rests a figure of
white marble, in the reposing attitude of the St
Cecilia of Bernini at Rome, — which changes the
interest of the inscription, — ' Et in Arcad'iu egv,'
to that inspired by the epitaph on the tomb, —
' J'aijmt Armdie etj'y repose'

" Then you have the pictm-esque ruins of the
ancient habitation of the god Pan ; the sacrifice

TEAVELLEa'S GUIDE. 343

to Gsculaplus, eurrounded by his attributes ; the
isle of offerings, which you reach by a flying
bridge, fixed to the banks by cordage. The cir-
cus, constructed ou the Grecian model, and of the
same size, is filled with monuments of marble, and
of Oriental granite of the highest antiquity. A
chapel, lately constructed at the gate leading from
the park, and in the middle of a meadow enamel-
led with flowers, is above all remarkable. Its
massive exterior gives it the majestic appearance
of a sarcophagus. It is elevated on four arches,
which serve as supports to it. It is ornamented
in the interior by some copies in Sepia, of the
woi'ks of the best painters, by Seydehnan, an art-
ist celebrated for the spirit and truth with which
he gives the character of the painters after whom
he designs. Among these, there is the Virgin,
after Raphael, — Sacrifice of Emanuel, after Rem-
brandt, — Repose in Egypt, after Ferdinand Boll,
— Magdalen, after Bottom, and others.

" Delille has consecrated this spot, by his ad-
mirable description of it in his immortal poem,
Les Jardins. *

" But the most beautiful place in Poland, that
has likewise been chauuted by Delille, is Pulawy,
the ordinary country residence of Prince Czarto-
ryski. Nature, art, taste, expence, all seem to have

•See Appendix, Note 12.

S41

LETTERS ON POLAND.

been combined to adorn it. It ia situated on the
prominent banks of the Vistula. The buildings
are surrounded and shaded by an extensive park,
or rather venerable grove, where, in a beautiful
variety, are to be seen porticos and hermitages,
C3iinese kiosks, precipices, and subterraneous grot-
tos. A colossal statue of the dying Clorinda, sup-
ported by Tancred. in white Carara marble ; epi-
taphs hewn in rock for the deceased friends of
that illustrious family. Yet it is not a place of
beauty alone, but also of veneration. To it the
natives resort as it were in pilgrimage, to gratify
tbeir patriotic feelings. There are two temples,
the one biult on the exact model of the Temple of
the Sibyl at Tivoli, the other of a Gothic structure.
The first is destined to be the repository for the
antiquities of Poland, It contains a great quan-
tity of ancient Polish armour, shields, helmets,
sabres, and is overiuing with standards won by
the Poles in the battles with the Turks, Aus-
triaus, and the Teutonic Order. At the walls
stand the cenotaphs of conspicuous men of old, of
eminent generals, poets, and philosophers ; some
with relics of bones, some empty, — all with ap-
propriate emblems and mottos. On the cinereal
um of our ancient poet Kochanowski hangs a
golden lyre. The cenotaph of Copernicus has
the subhme inscription, Sta Sol. In a gloomy
undervault of this temple, an obelisk of black Car-

TRAVELLER S GUIDE.

S45

pathian marble is raised to the memory of Prince
Poniatoweki, ' who lived for renown, and died
for his country.' * The Emperor Alexander hav-
ing visited this temple, adorned afterwards its
copula, wliich was open, with a solid window-
glass, made expressly for this purpose, through
which now a dim and sombre daylight falls on
the glorious remains of the ancient Poles.

" The other, or the Gothic Temple, contains
chiefly the antiquities of the middle ages of all
countries and nations. They consist for the most
part of ancient tombstones, armour, rare books,
manuscripts, and portraits. Among the last is
to be seen the original portrait of Raphael, paint-
ed by himself, and Joan of Arc, by Carlo Dolci.
This seat of the Prince Czartoryski is besides en-
riched with the largest library in Poland, contain-
ing about 120,000 volumes in different languages.
It contains also the richest collection of MSS. par-
ticularly relating to the history of Poland."

Posting, we are informed, has reached the
highest degree of perfection in Poland. The pos-
tilions are active, sober, intelligent, and trust-wor-
thy. The horses, chiefly from the Ukraine and
Russia, are indefatigable, strong, although small,

• An inscription on the iron rings which the Poles wear
to his memory, and which cannot be rendered well in Eng-
lish. The original is, " Z^l dla siawi), umarl sa oyczysne."

346

LETTERS ON POLAND.

and fill! of fire and action. The celerity with
which the traveller is conveyed from stage to
stage is agreeable in many respects. Even on
" postes doubles," he is not obliged, as in Ger-
many, to kick his heels while the horsea are bait-
ing. The public carriages, which regularly tra-
vel on the great roads, are on the model of those
in England. They travel night and day. At
every post-house, (station de poste,) a register is
kept, in which travellers are entitled to enter any
contplaiuts they may have to make of the pust-
, boys, &c., whose deceptions, inattention, or im-
pertinence, if established, are severely punished.
The whole system is under the superintendence of
a direction generale des postes. Those who do
not wish to travel post, may find in every place
voituriers in great nmnbers, among whom are many
' Jews, who wiU contract to convey them, at a small
expence, distances of twenty or thirty miles, or fai*-
ther, travelling at the rate of ten or twelve miles
a-day. * When arrived at the end of the stipu-
lated journey, the miturier is sure to meet with a
fare back again, and the traveller with the means
of further conveyance. The probity of these voi-
turiers is well estabhshed, and they may be safely
entrusted with valuable effects, or money, to be
conveyed to distant places. These advantages in

' The Polish mile is nearly aix English milei.

TBAVELLEB'S GUIDE. 347

traTelling will be further increased by the rapid
improvement of the roads, which proceeds with
activity under the superintendence of govern-
ment.

The forests are of great extent, particularly
those in the north. Notwithfitanding this, the
roads are safe ; and instances of robbery or mur-
der are almost xmheard of in Poland. This
is partly owing to the natural good dispositions
of the people, and partly to the watchfulness
of the police. All vagabonds, male and female,
both in the towns and provinces, are arrested by
the police, and employed on public works.

The villages are of great length, and consist of
thatched wooden houses. Those of the better or-
der of peasants contain spacious and commodious
apartments. Of late years, houses of stone are
often met with. In many places there are as it
were colonies of gentlemen farmers. They are
the descendants and worthy rivals of those nobles
who, under the name of pospolite, have given
such proofs of devotion and fidelity to their native
land, and from whom also the most celebrated in-
dividuals, and the most distinguished families,
take their origin.

The richest inhabitants of the cities, as well as
the nobles, have all their chateaus, or country-
houses, with parka and gardens, which rival in
beauty, and in the works of art which adorn them,

34&

LETTERS ON POLAND.

those of France aud Germany. These mighty
improvements are only the work of later years.
While all other nations were making exertions to
extend theii* commerce aud their territory, to
build new cities, and generally to improve and to
beautify themselves, Poland, from its geographi-
cal position, (the bulwark of Germany,) was con-
tinually subject to the invasions of the Turks, the
Tartars, the Swedes, the Cossacks, &c. Thus re-
pose and tranquillity, so necessary for purposes of
improvement, if obtained at all, were necessarily
employed in repairing the ravages of war. But a
few years of peace have shown tliat the spirit of
improvement is not wanting, if the means are af-
forded.

The soil in general is fertile, and produces a
great variety of different kinds of grain. Wine,
bread, and coffee, are universally allowed to be of
surpassing excellence. " If you want your coffee
strong, ask for Polish coffee ; if weak, call for Ger-
man." Formerly, the Hungarian wines were con-
sumed in great quantity, and they ai'e still to be
met with of ancient vintages at the tables of rich
proprietors, and, above all, of ecclesiastics, who
have kept them more than a century in their cel-
lars. Of late years the French have introduced a
taste for their own wines, which are now to be
tnet with, in variety and good, in all the small
towns and private houses. English ale andpor-

TRAVELLEHS GUIDE.

349

'■ter ai'e now a common beverage; and champagne,
mixed with a profusion of seltzer water, is the
usual cooling drink in the hottest season.

The peasantry, who are declared free by the
constitutions of 1791, 1807, and 1815, though not
very far advanced in civilization, are laborious,
and abound in good qualities. They are devoted
-to their landlords, and are easily guided to iinprove-
-ment. Their stores, though not rich, supply them
-sufficiently with the necessities of life. Their
■welfare depends much upon their own industry.
■They are in general proprietors of portions of the
soil allotted them by their landlord, (Seigneur,)
■who receives his rent in labour, the peasant work-
ing for hira so many days in the week, called by
-the French corvee ; * this practice is restrained by

• A practice of thia sort prevailed a few years ago, and
'perhaps still prevails, in Northumberland, where the cotta-
gera were obliged to do bondage work, as they called it, for
the landlord. The system of bondage work is universal
wherever the people of Sclavonian origin have their settle-
ments. It seems to have originated in necesaity, as there is
no other state of feudal subardination known, except that of
certain peasants, who, instead of performing manual labour,
'go on measagea when required by the landlord. These in
Poland are designated by the name of Boyars, and are com-
monly in a better condition than the others. In some places
tliere are whole villages inhabited by such boyars, who have
probably acquired the advantageous privilege either from
some signal conduct of valour in war, or from the private
grant of their beneficent landlord.

S80

tS:

LETTEES ON FOX.AND.

laws preventing its abuse. Every peasant may
quit his landlord if injured or dissatisfied. In
some districts tiie peasants rise to be farmers, botli
hereditary and for terms of years ; and it is hoped
that the condition of this class will improve from
day to day.

" The Jews, more numerous in Poland tlian in
any other country, multiply every day, and al-
ready form a very important part of the popula-
tion of the country.* Sober, economical, and in-
dustrious, ihey would have all the qualities essen-
tial in mercantile traffic, were their character free
from the tarnish of craftiness, a want of good
feith, and the trickery which they employ in their
transactions. Having interest only for their guide,
they are as yet far from meriting that coneidera-
tion and confidence which is usually granted in
commerce ; and yet they have contrived to get pos-
session of the principal share of the internal traf-
fic, that great branch of national riches. They
might thereby come to constitute one of the chief
links of society, if their religion, their laws, and
their customs, did not prescribe to them interests
absolutely exclusive in their nature. It is this

• " There have in the last two years (1819, 1890) ap-
peared many works dedicated to the improvement of this
people. The councellor Miiller, a literary character of dis-
tinction, promises a work on thia subject, which is eagerly
expected by the public."

TRAVELLER'S GUIDE. 351

absolute insulation, spiritual and personal, if I
may so speak, that makes them a separate people
in the veiy heart of Poland. Probably this is the
source of that hatred and contempt with which
they are treated, and which, instead of modifying
by degrees all that is pernicious to society in their
situation, only serves to concentrate them still
more. * The Jews have hitherto proved a stumb-
ling-block to our legislators, and nothing has been
done by tlie present sovereign relative to tiiera.
He wishes to arm his prudence with experience.
Their chief abuses, however, have been in some
degree repressed by placing checks upon the ma-
nufacture and sale of spirits by the Jews, wlio
made this traffic a terrible engine in the corrap-
tion and ruin of the peasantry, of whose property
they thus obtained the disposal. They have also,
in general, been ejected by the coimtry gentlemen,
from the inns which they formerly tenanted,
which they kept in the state of desolation and dis-
comfort we have already described, and which
rendered it necessary to carry beds, kitchen uten-

" These obaervationa apply to the Jews throughout the
world ; and, though charity would look forward with
hope to an amendment as well of their faith and character,
as of their condition in society, we behold with awe, in their
present insulated, and, alas ! detested Bituation, the accom-
plishment of prophecy, and the fulfilment of the curse which
hanga over them.

95^ I^ETTEBS ON POLAND/

sUs, and provisions on every journey. In this
state of things, (which is now in a great measure
done aWay,) it is pleasing to know that the defi-
ciencies of the inns were counterbalanced by the
hospitality of the gentry, among whom the traveller
was sought for, and met with that welcome and at--
tention, that afiability and politeness, which have
ever characterized the nation of Poland."

We take leave of this little work by saying, that
it is elegantly got up, both in typography and
embellishments ; that it is usefully and neatly put
together, and that it contains ten times as much
information as is generally to be found in such
publications^

APPENDIX.

EBB

NoTii 1.

Ku&HAKY are certain high iumulif fonmd extensiTeij in
Poland and Russia, in the form of graves, some twenty
or eyen fifty feet high, and sujqxxied to be the tombs of
ancient renowned chiefs. Most of them are on hills like
the cairns in Scotland, and often surrounded by a great
number of others differing in size and height* Many of
these are but little raised above the adjoining surfaee^
others standing like giants single and solitary, objects of
wonder to the traveller, and enigmas to the antiquary.
The most conspicuous, and known by the names of the
entombed characters, are the tomb of Cracus, a fabulous '

Polish Duke, the founder of Cracow, the tomb of Wan- - ' "
da, a Polish Princess, both near Cracow, and the tomb ^ '
of Pelka near laroslaw in Galhcla. Upon the summit A ^* ^^
of a high mountain near Przemysl is a Kurhan to the
memory of a chief whose name is unknown, and which
tradition affirms to have bees erected of earth heaped up
by the helmets of his army. In other places are to be
seen small dispersed hillocks containing sepulchral olay^

356

APPENDIX.

urns, large and small, filled wilh bont^s and ashes, also
with corroded iron and copper implements, which had
[ probably been employed for use or ornament by the de-
parted during their lifetime. They seem to have been
family burial-places. Such sepulchral urns are often
turned up from the ground by the plough, and are call-
ed in Polish Zalc, which means regrets.

Note 2.

Sclavonic is a corruption of the word Slavonic, by
the insertion of c. The Sclavonians, as foreigners write
and pronounce their name, call themselves in their own
language Slawianie or Slowianie. Both terms are equal-
ly common, and both have an equally plausible etymo-
kgy. Slawianie is derived from Slaua, fame or glory,
which a people so exten^ve, and perhaps often vJcto-
lious over others, did not, in their self-complacency, he-
eitate to bestow on themselves. Slowianie, again, might
be derived from Slowo, " word," and then signiJies a
people that has words, that is, a common intelligible
speech. The nations which did not speak thdr lan-
guage were denied to have a language at all. In this
predicament stand the Germans, whom the Poles and
Aussians do not call either Allemans or Teutons, but
Niemcy, which signifieE a nation that is dumb and has
no speech.

Foreign authors commonly derive the name Sclavonian
from the German word slave, serf, and from this etymo-
logy they then conclude .00 the slavish condition in
which that nation for centuries lived,— an 1
conclusion as well as derivation, still just as to the s

APPEND rx. 357

ject, as it ia implied in it. Among the Sdai
traces of patriarchal government prevjuled long after
they were entirely obliterated from amongst other Euro-
pean nations, and are not yet entirely effaced. The
Sclavonians were originally governed by tlieir ^oie-
wods, leaders in war, whom they elected by votes from
among themselves. For two different centuries twelve
such Woiewods conjunctly governed in Poland. Here-
ditary government would, at that time, have been con-
sidered aa unnatural and oppressive. The first steps to-
wards aristocracy were made under the Princes Kn'iaz,
J^ioze, and Hospodar, who at first were not hereditary,
but elected by the free suffrages of the people. Thus,
Przemyslaw in Boliemia was raised to the princely digni-
ty from the plough ; Piast in Poland, from his rural ham-
let, which his industry had filled with plenty, and which
his hospitality opened to every stranger. The names of
Czar and Krol (King in Poland) were not yet heard of.
The last term some historians. derive from Karol, by
which the Sclavonians used to denominate Charlemagne
during his invasions iu their country. Under such go-
vernment has there been the least room left for slavery
and oppression ? Certainly not, except in the etymolo-
gical delusive dreams of those who are not act^uainted
witli history. The feudal system, which in other coun-
tries changed men into serfs, having been adopted by
some ambitious Sclavonian princes, in the succession of
ages, has transplanted servitude into the Sclavonian
countries. The Germans were the first propagators of
this humiliating system. Having subdued several small
Sclavonian tribes in Mecklenburg, in Lusatia, in Pome-
rania, and Austria, tbey changed them into their serfs,

SSi APPENDIX.

— distorted the nune of Skwianie or of Slawy into
Slaven and Sclaven, and using those foreign tribes worse
than their own native serfs, made at length the meaning
of the word sclave, (Eng. slave,) opprobrious and de-
grading. Thus, the slave intended as an inaiilt to the
Selavonians, (or as I would ratlier call Slavonians,) im-
plies in its very derivation a complicated history teem-
ing with human atrocities.

The language of the Sclavonian tribes, vhich is ibll
Spoken by 70 millions at leaat of the European popula-
tion, seems to have been originally nearly the same in
every place, more so than it is now. The more ancient
the documents are, the mote obvious is the similarity of
its dialects. Ages having scattered the Sclavonian tribes
in different directions, over different climates, introduced
changes into their common language, and formed count-
less idioms in varied gradations, sometimes with an in-
termixture of words of a foreign stock. Still, however,
with a little attention, a native can understand them and
acquire them without difficulty. The leading Sclavo-
nian dialects are the Riissian, Fohsh, and Bohemian.
I have here arranged them according to the comparative
numbers of the people by whom they are respectively
spoken. In regard to literature the Polish is the most
extensive. The Polish idiom is also the richest and the
most cultivated ; the Russian is softer, the Bohemian
harsher.

The fundamental principles of these three, as well as
of the other Sclavonian dialects, are the same. None of
them uses articles, in which they more resemble tlie La-
tin than the Greek ; but in the manifold inflections
which they admit befoie and after the nouns and

APPENDIX. 8fi9

verbs, they outvie both. Tha construction U uncon-
straiued, and as free as that of the Greek or liEttn c&a
be- The Sclavonic has three genders, fot substantives,
adjectives, and even for some tenses of verbs. The Po-
lish nouns have no less than seven cases, both singular
and plural. In ancient Polish we even find traces of a
dual number. By a strange anomaly, the Foliah placfis
its accent on the penult, while the Huasian places it
on different syllables, frequently on the last, which
makes it preferable for blank verse. This peculiarity
of the Polish language, I conceivej is the work of the
clergy, who formed the prosody of tlieir native Un-
cage on the model of the Latin prose. But I must,
without making farther remarks upon this subject, re-
fer the reader to the writings of grammarians. The
Pohsh grammars for the use of the Germans by Band-
tkie, MrongoviuE, Vogel, Vater, and Bucki ; Kop-
czynski's Polish Grammar for the French. The Rus-
sian grammars are Tappe''s Thcoretisch Proctlsche B.u-
asiscbe Sprachlchre, Heym'a Russisches Lcscbuch, Lu-
dolphi Grammatics Russica, quae continet et Manu-
ductionem quaodam ad Grammaticom Sclavonicom,
Oxoniae, 1696.

NOTK 3.
Notices of (he Life of d^emkus.

Soke modem authors, and particularly the French,
misled by Montucla, make Germany the native country
of Copernicus, which is a gross mistake, contradicted by
all the evidences of geography and history :— Coperni-
cus was a Pole. The error of supposing him to have

APPENDIX.

been a German seems to have arisen from his having
been bom in Frusta.

Thorn, his birth-place, is, indeed, a town of Prussia ;
but Prussia is not Germany, nor are all the Prussians
Germans ; and this was still less the case when we view
them about half a century back. The greatest part of
the kingdom of Prussia (I mean here only Western
and Eastern Prussia) is peopled by the Poles, and by
the Lithuanians, who are her aboriginal inhabitants;
the inhabitants of the sea sbore alone are of a German
stock, these parts having been settled by Scandinavian
pirates, augmented by the German settlers who came
along with the Teutonic Order, with the intention of
Bubjugating and overawing the seditious natives. Thorn
is situated in that part of Prussia which has been from
time immemorial, and is at present, inhabited by Poles.
In the time of Copei-nicus, and until the second partition
of Poland, {in the year 1792,) this constituted a Po-
hsh province, and was called Regal Prussia, in opposi-
tion to her eastern part. Ducal Prussia, which was avas-
sal country to Poland.

But there are additional facts which enable us to con-
sider Copernicus not as a German but a Pole. His fa-
ther was originaUy a Pole, a native of Cracow, who, in
1463, transferred his habitatjoo to Thorn, which was as
truly Polish as Cracow itself. In the tenth year of bis
re^dence in that town, that is in 1473, Nicolas Coper-
nicus was born. Having received the first elemaits of
learning at home, he was sent, in 1499, to the Ifniversity
of Cracow, celebrated at that time even abroad, and
much frequented by foreigners from different nations
and coimtries. His name is inscribed in the Album of

APPENDIX. 361

that university. The professor under whom he studied
the Mathematical Sciences, to which he owed all his sub-
sequent fame, was Albert Brudzewslii, likewise a Pole :
and his fellow-students were James of KobyJin, Bernard
Wapowski, Nicolas Szadek, and Martin of Olkusz, all
celebrated mathematicians, and authors in various de-
partments of science. Wapowski is recorded to have
been a particular friend of his, to whom he was wont to
communicate his bold and original conceptions, and, in
coDsultiug him, set a high value on his approbation.

In the year 1497, Copernicus set out on his travels to
Italy ;— -in Bononia we find him a companion in astrono-
mical observations with Maria- Dominicus of Ferrara.
From Bononia he went to Rome. In the twenty-seventh
year of his age he was there appointed public Professor
of Mathematics, and, according to the testimonies of bis
biographers, the celebrity of his lectures soon attracted a
great number of students.

Besides the mathematical sciences he was also conver-
sant with the medical ; and, on his return from Rome to
Poland, was graduated Dodor Medicintr at Padua ; — ■
B ceremony which was attended with an unusual solem-
nity : as that honourable dignity was conferred upon Iiim
by the Bishop of Padua himself, in the Cathedral, in pre-
sence of the members of the Medical Faculty. His
knowledge of medicine must have been great, and per-
I haps uncommon, as he has been styled by some learned
H Poles of that time the j^sculapius of the Polish physi-
K cians.

W Upon his return to Poland, in the year 1507, his in-

I tention was to occupy a chair in the University of Cra-

H cow; and he seems to have staid there for five years;

^gj

APPENDIX.

for Bottle of hiB astronomical observations mode in that
capital, and mentioned by himself in his own writings,
are referred to the year 1509. His uncle, the Bishop of
Wattnia, drew him off from hia scheme of remaining at
Cracow, by offering him the advantageous office of Canon
of Warmia, which Copernicus accepted,

Copernicus being now put in possession of emoluments
, adec^uate to insure an easy life, became entirely the vo-
I tory of Urania ; and reappears but twice on the busy
I scene of public life. In one of these instances we see
Mm a Depnty to the Polish Diet, defending the rights of
' tiie people against the oppression of the Teutonic Order ;
and in the other, valuing the money vitiated by the
Avaricious abuses of the Grand-Master, and projecting
means for stopping the disorders and grievantes occa-
sioned by it.

Thus far in evidence of Copemieu9 being H Pole,
whom ignorance had made a German. It 18 undeniable
that men of his genius belong equally to all countries,
find as they are a common good, they onght also to
be the common pride and ornament of the human race.
Still, where any nation's peculiar property is concern-
ed, as is the case here, auum cuirpie trlbuito. To
call Copernicus a German is equally improper as
if we were to call Galileo a Dutchman, Newton an
Italian, and Kepler a Turk ; and yet this gross mis-
take is daily repeated by those with whom the au-
thorities of Montucla and of Madame De Stael (who
commits the same error in her ' Germany') are held im-
maculate criteria of truth,

In an excursion to Prussia, in 1819, passing through
Thorn, I visited the house where Copernicus was bom.

APPENDIX.

It is now inhabited by a citizen of that town, and, except
ita glorious humilities, has nothing striking in its appear-
ance. The only thing that can attract the eye of a cu-
rious traveller, is a pillar in front of it about fourteen or
fiAeen feet high, with a globe placed on its top. I was
shown into the room where he is supposed to have been
bom, which is narrow and gloomy, as houses of Gothic
construction commonly arc, and was ornamented by hi*
portrait. In the lobby I saw a good number of other
portraits, which I was told were the portraits of the pro-
prietors of this house, from the father of Copernicus
down to the present time. Simple, yet proud burghers,
who thus contrived to perpetuate their mortal names by
associating them with that of an immortal ! On asking
its present proprietor, my Cicerone, whether he intended
to continue this long series by adding his portrait ?
He answered in the affirmative, and pointed out the
place where he meant to hang it. The same dtizen
values this house so much, that, as I was told, he refus-
ed to sell it for a considerable sum to the Crown-Prince
of Prussia, who, on visiting it, with the intention of ho-
nouring the memory of that great man, proposed to esta-
blish a school of mathematics there, and endow it liber-
ally.

Except two portraits of Copernicus, the one in the
church where be was baptized, and the other in the
gymnasium, there exist no other monuments of him.
During the time when Thorn belonged to the Duchy of
Warsaw, the Poles had it in contemplation to erect a
monument to his memory ; but Thorn having been de-
tached from Poland at the Congress of Vienna, the loss

364

APPENUIX.

of it frusUrated their patriotic project, and the nionument
IB now to be erected at Warsaw.

Copernicus made his observations without the assist-
ance of telescopes, the invention of these being of a later
date. Galileo, who improved them, was the first who
applied them to astronomical purposes. It is astonishing
what powers of mind the Polish philosopher must have
possessed, being able to make such profound discoveries
in astronomy by the mere strength of his intellect, — fa-
thoming the depth of infinity with his bare eye, and
with mere human sagacity detecting Nature at her di-
vine work in her remotest and most hidden sanctuary.

Copernicus is recorded to have been the first European
who set an instrument on the meridian. No regular ob-
servatories existed before him ; the first that is known
was erected at Cassel in 1561. * He made the greatest
part of his astronomical observations at Frauenburgh, a
Prussian town, situated at the shore of the Frisch-Haff.
JHis Observatory is to be seen in the convent where he
lived, which is built upon a mountain overlooking the
town, and commanding a beautiful prospect of the en-
.Tirons, and the watery expanse of the frith. Tlie room
- jshere he watched the evolutions of the heavens is square-
L shaped, containing only about six or seven yards in
I Jength, and constructed with bricks, without the appli-
I ^tion of any of the principles so strictly observed in the
I erection of more modern observatories. It is now en-
[ tirely desolated, not even protected by windows. The
r Toom below, where ho probably committed the results of

■ See Enpfclopiedia Brit. Suppl. uniler the word Obseh

APPENDIX. 865

his observations to writing, is inhabited by a Prussian o£.
ficer of police.

He died in the same town in the year ISiS, and was
buried in the church, close on the right side of the higb»
alt^. In the twenty-eighth year aft^r his death, Cro.
mer, Bishop of Warmia, the celebrated Polish historian,
caused a tombstone to be erected to his memory. Two
spheres were engraved upon it, and the following epitaph :

D. O. M.

R. D. Nicolao Copernico Torunensi

Artium et Medicine Doctor!

Canonico Varmiensi

Prsstanti Astrologo^ et ^os Disciplins Instauratori

Martiniut Cromerus Episc. Vannien :

Honoris, et ad po^teritateno^ memorise causa

Fosui.
Anno Christ! M. D. LXXXI.

Not the least trace of this inscription is now vimble.
His tomb being in the most frequented passage, it hat
been quite worn out by the footsteps of the pious pas-
sengers. His portrdt is there seen suspended upon the
pillar next his tomb, firoscius, a famous Polish mathe-
matician, on his visit to that venerated spot, in the year
1618, celebrated Frauenburgh and the Observatory of
Ckipemicus in his Latin epigrams.

The same Brbscius presented a portrait of Copemicus
to the University of Cracow ; and Copemicus also gave
a portrait of his father, which he himself had painted ;
both which curious monuments are preserved in the li-
brary of the university.

John &iiadecki, Astronomer at the University of
Wilna, wrote the biography of Copemicus, and an ana-

APPENDIX.

lyaa of all hia astranomioal works, which has been insett-
ed in the Annals of the Society of the Friends of Sdence
at Warsaw. It is translated into French and German.
The German translation is, if I mistake not, published
in tlie AetronoQiical Ephemerides at Berlin.

Note 4

ViTELLio (Ciolek) liVed in the beginning of the
13th century, and was the first in Europe who investigat-
ed the Theory ofIAg7u, having elucidated its principles
long before Newton. Montucla, and Brisson, in his Dic-
tionnaire de Physique, Art. Oplique, relates it aa a cer-
tain fact ; — they only deny that system to be ori^nally
of his invention by ascribing it to Al-Hasen, a learned
Arab of the 12th century. Broscius, a Pohsh matlifr-
matician of the 17th century, appears to have been of a
chiferent opinion. In his treatise De Slerum Incqualita-
te, he quotes Vitellio's authority separately from that of
Al-Hasen, as if there were no conneclion betwixt their
writings. Riesncr, publishing a new edition of Vitellio's
Optics, in the 16th century, ascribes to him the original
illustration of the Theory of Optics. Whether our Vi-
tellio drew any advantage from the Arabian MSS. of
Al-Hasen, or not, it would be diiBcult to ascertain.
Still this must remain indisputably true, that he was the
£rst in Europe who wrote on this subject, and made it
universally known.

Gregory of Sanok, philosopher and poet, lived in
the first half of the 18th century ; and, as the historian
Callimachus, his contempoiary, attests, was the reformer

AfFENOlX. 367

of taste in the Polish hterature. — " Primus itaquc sor-
iem et squalorem," says be, " quern recentiores gram-
matitu disccntium ingeniis offuderaat detergere orsus,
cultum, ac splendorem antiquse oraUonis Cracoviam in-
duxit. Circa rhetoricam et poesin, cui naturaliter affec-
tur erat IngeDium continuerat. Carterum ille inox no-
vam de se admirationem apud omneB c:ccitavit ; coepit
enim Bucolicon carmeti Virgilii publicitus interpretari)
cujus et nomen et author ad earn diem, extra omnem
notitiam ea in regione fuerat. Tacito itaque consensu
novitas rei ad eum audiendum homines attraxit, ut nemo
fuent, qui non Itteras nosset, qui non ad ipsius audito-
rium conveniret. Una erat vox inter omnes literatos,
tunc proximum eis lumen illuxisae cujus beneficiis ad
verum iter doctrines progredereotur, cum antca deviis
erroribus impliciti citius consenescerent, quam ad labo-
nitn suarura fructum aliquem discendo pervenirent."

We find him, in the year 1440, councillor to Vladi-
slaus, a Polish prince of royal blood, when crowned King
of Hungary ;— -he was also his companion in the war
carried on against the Turks in 1444. He wrote the
history of this expedition, and, besidee, was the author
of some pieces of poetry, fiut none of hiii writings sur-
vived — only his opinions, and some witty sayings, are
related in the works of liis admirers, and particularly
those of Callimachus. He is, for instance, reported to
bave styled the scholastic subtleties of Aristotle " som-
nia viffUantium ," and maintained, that the education
of youth should begin with poetry and orators; — that
the more rcli^on is wrapt in a veil of mystery, the
more will people revere it, for, a familiar look is a pro-
fimabon of holinesa ;— that to braiefit, or to save the

country, there was more strength in the mind than in
ihe body. He compared an ungrateful person to the
sea, which, tliough it receives sweet water from all
rivers, does not change its nauseous nature. He advised
one, who> in a large company, pnused the beauty of his
wife, to be silent. — " For," said he, " if you really con-
vince them, you shall soon repent your having married
a beauty. "^ But wc must have done with his sayings,
which are profound, and pronounced with an epigram-
matic sharpness. To judge from what he said, or rather
what is said of liim, he appears to have been a man su-
perior to the prejudices of his contemporaries. He was
threatened by the Pope with incarceration for his opi.
nions. We find him, in a later period of his life, raised
to the dignity of Archbishop of Leopol.

ZAi.nzANSKi, a celebrated botanist of the 17lh cen-
tury, was the first who detected the sexual fructifica-
tion of plants, having anticipated Liimeeus, to whom it
is commonly ascribed. His book, in which he eluci-
dates the new system of botany, was published at
Prague ; and Linn^us must, or at least might, have
known it. — See Essai sur la Literature de Pologne, par
M. Dubois, Mcmbre de I'Academie de Sciences, Arts, et
Bellcs-Lettres. Edition de Berlin, 1778, p. 389.

Mathias Casimir SARfiiEwsKi wss bom of a noble fa-
mily in the palatinate of Plotzko. Having become mem-
ber of the Order of Jesuits, he travelled for some time in
foreign coiuitries. During his stay at Rome, ho ad-
dressed several of his Latin Odes to Cardinal Berberini,
his particular friend, and assisted Pope Urban VHI. in
the reform of the liturgy of the Catholic Church.
He afterwards was elected poet laureate, which honour

APPEIN'DIX. 369

was the more creditable to his talents as it was bestowed
on him by a person who was no mean poet himself.
On his departure from Rome, his Holiness, in the act of
bestowing upon him his benediction, hung around his
neck a precious chain, alcHig with his own miniature,
while Sarbiewski was kneeling before him. When Saiv
biewski, crossing the Carpathian mountains, where he
was surrounded by the M^onders of Nature, first came in
sight of his native land, from thdr highest range, his
feelings burst into a sublime and religious ode, which
begins thijs,— ?

'' Aetema magnis cannina Carpati
In^cribo saw* Diecite posteri^

Castisque discendom puellis

Et pueris geminate cantum." etc

On his arrival at the place of his nativity, he apostro-
phized, in lines which follow, the fountain Sana, situat-
ed in his paternal estate, at which he used to spend the
playful hours of his yputh, sometimes by the side of his
aged grandfather, who died at the patriarchal age of
109 years.

FoNS innocenti lucidus magis vitro

Farique purior niue^
Pagi voluptas^ vna Nympharum aitis,

Ocelle natalis soli^
Longis viarum langaidua laboribus

Et mole curarmn grauia
Thuscis ab vsque gentibus redux^ tibi

Acdine prosterno latus :
Sic dum loquad prata garritu secas,

Et Istus audiri salis :
Assibilantes populetomm com<e ■ ^ V^.

I»gratapon«,tn,«r««« ; f .

Tibi, lyraeque Vatia. etc. ^.j-

::.•.■'

A a

wo APPENDIX.

At Wilna lie was grotluated doctor lU the presence of
King Vladislnus IV. whu, during the ceremony, pulled
ofTaiingfrom his finger, and presented it to our poet with
a gracious compliment to his genius. Shortly after we
find him occupying for some time the chair of poetry at
the university, and at last chaplain to the king. He
died at Warsaw in 1640, in the 45th year of his age.
His poetical works are five books of Lyrics— Slvilu-
dia — the Lechiad, an unfinished epic poem — ana epi-
grams. One on the statue of Cicero runs thus : —

" Orn Wyron, humeros Lyaippns, lumina finsit
pTBuitelGS ; vocetn fingere nemo potest."

His prose writings are, De Acuto et Arguto — De
Perfecta Poesi — Dc Diis Gentium.

His fame as a poet spread over all Europe. Grotius
preferred reading his poetry to that of Horace. The
most celebrated men of different nations addressed verses
to him, expressing their admiration of his muse. These
are usually annexed to his poems with the title of Epi-
citharisma. Out of their great number, I shall only
quote one written by Erycius Puteanus.

QviB Mjsca Apollinis uouue ? quii proximo

Accedil Vrbanvm gradu
Threissa doctte (ila carpena barbiti,

Et Pintlttri dens melos ?
lloroaniiE ore, natione Sarmals,

CultiBaimi vir JDgeni,
Ab axe ftammam frigido Saelbievivs,

A nocte lumen inuehcns,
Vertit quailrigas otbita Phcebi noua

Niuesque mundi eal^t.
Autteclu baibaram exuunt,teTUgiDen]j
kki Aut prieca Kdenni siefuli. etc

I
I

APPENDIX. 371

BzoviUB,(Bzow3Kr,)boniin 1567, wasapupil of the uni-
versity of Cracow. He spent several years in traveliiog ;
and, (luring his residence at Milan, lectured publicly on
philosophy. Viteliio, in his Chrysol,, ^ves the following
account of the celebrity which he acquired in Italy:—
" Erecti exterorum animi ob eximium hominis ingenuod
acumen, cum sibi ambitiose deposcere, Polonum negare,
tarn horrendo et extreme ut putant damnato in solo,
earn ingenii fcecunditatem, industrts sagacitatem potu-
isse exoriri aon verisiniile arbitrantur. Sed cum ventosa
hominum illcruin ad retinendum palpatione se non po-
tuisse deliniri palam significaret ne comusculis illis pasci
magnum quid existimarent, rediit in patriam fama ad-
ventum suum celebri. antevertente-" On his return to
Poland, he occupied, for some time, the chair of theolo-
gy at Cracow ; and, after the death of Baronius, was
destined, by the Pope, to continue his Ecclesiastical
History. His continuation is published in 21 volumes.
" Ea (annalium volumina) et opens mole et rerum nu-
mero ac varietate et laboris magnitudine cu;teris (operi.
bus Bzovii) prEestare dicenda sunt, quse incredibile me-
moratu est, quanta animi alacritate susceperit, quantaque
celeritato ad absolutionem et pcrfectionem perduxeritj
prsesertim cum non parum multi ab excessu Baroiiii as-
siduo opere eandem incudem dies noctesque tutunderint,
ueque adhuc quicquam in hoc genere quod magnopere
proborea, attulerint." — Joannis Nicii Eriihnri Pinaco.
thecaimaginumillustriumvu-orum. Col. Agr.l743,p.l98.
STANistAirsHosius wasamanof low birth, who owed
his elevation to his taients alone. He was successively
made Bishop of Warmia, Cardinal and Legate of tiie
Pope, and President of the famous Council of Trent in

372 APPENDIX.

1662. To him the Jesuits are indebted for ihi;ir inlro-
duction into Poland. He estabiislied them at first in
Braunsberg, a Prussian town ; from thence they spread
over Lithnania, and other Polish provinces.

Wahsavia Physice IlliiBlrata ab Erndu'lio Dresdse,
1780, p. 4, contains this favourable account of the clia-
racter of the Polish nation :

" Invitabat non minus ad hac insUtutum, {meaning
his work,) ipsa nntionis Sarmaticfe dignitas et erga exte-
ros bene mercntes summa humaiiitas ct benevolentia,
quibuscum hospital! talis virtute junctis, plcrasquc supc-
rant, fatcnte ipsa invidta, cuhiores etiam gentes, generosi
Poloni, Neque temere credaa velim quarundum blate-
ronum scurrili malediccntice, qui gentem banc nobiliBsI-
mam de nescio qua feritate et asperilate suspectam red-
dere satagunt. Poioni sane urbaniores et cultii cJegan-
tiorcs sunt, quam vulgo crcditur. Et ne temere vel
ex intempestiva adulatione lioc dictum putea, lotiua-
tur pro me eloquentissimus M. A. Muretus, qui, (a.
Ch. 1578,) aureo plane ore et Ciceroniano stylo, Polo-
norum dignitatem sequentibus commendat. " Mag-
na mihi cum multis Germanis, magna cum permul-
tis Polonis familiaritas, magnus usus, ct magna neces-
situdo fuit. Semper cus e^pertus sum bonos virus,
apertos, humanissimus, pra^terea et prope omnes eo
vitie cuitu et munditie, qux ad elegantiam potius, quam
ad uUam barbaricm occederct. Nugee istte aunt ho-
minum, eos, qui adulari ct fallere, et aliud loiqui, aliud

APPENDIX. 373

cogitare nesciunt, barbaro$ vocantium. . Utinam nos eo
modo barbari essetnus ! Utri rero barbariores, sunt^
nati in media Italia, quorum vix centesimum quemque
reperias, qui Latine aut Graece loqui sciat, aut literas
amet ; an Germani et Poloni quorum permulti et earum
linguarutii utramque perfecdssime callent, et ita litteras
ac liberates disciplinas amant, ut in eis tempus omne
consumant ? Olim illi fortassis asperi ac barbari fiierunt ;
hoc quidem seculo vereor, ne ad nos barbaries, ad
lUos cultus et splendor vitae, et eruditio atque humanitas,
mutatis sedibus, commigrarit. Nee frustra Erasmum
Roterdamum, acerrimum alias vitiorum Aristarchum,
asseruisse alicubi in scriptis suis puto. ^ Litteris, legibus, '
moribus, et religione, et si quid est, quod a barbariei
probro vindicet, cum praecipuis, et lautissimis nationibus
certare posse Polonos ;'* allegante < autore Poloniae De«
fensae contra BarcUdum*^ ^

Note 6.

JosEPHUs Stbuthius, a famous physician, was born in
Posnania, in 1510. He studied Greek at Cracow under
Libanius — ^natural philosophy under Morawski— -medi-
dne under Cyprianus of Lowicz. In his youth he en<*
joyed the patronage of two noble families, Laski and
Choinski. During his travels he continued his medical
studies, applying himself assiduously to the perusal of
the works of Hippocrates and Galenus. During his stay
at Padua, the Senate of Venice created him a public
professor of medicine at that place. He rescued from
oblivion the study of the pulsCy (sphygmica,) neglected

APPENDIX.

since the 12th century ; and, having made it an object
of his lectures, promoted its divulgation throughout Eu-
rope. He was physician to the Polish King, Sigismund
Augustus, and died, in 1568, in Posnanla, where his
epitaph is still extant. His works are very numerous.
I shall quote only the principal ones, containing some
historical information : In Luciani Samosatonsis Astro-
logiam Commentariorum libri duo, Crac. 1531, — Galeni
Astrolo^a ad Aphrodisium eshibens MathemathicEe
8cientife Prognostica de Decuhitu Infirmorum, nunc
primum a Jos. Struthio e Gracco translata, VeneliiR,
1535, — Galeni de Urinis Liber e Graeco traductus, Ve-
netiis, 1535, — Galeni de Antidotis hbri duo, per tot se-
cula ah omnibus magnopere dcsiderati, e Graeco in La-
tinum traducti et commentariis illustrati a Jos. Struthio,
Polono, Venetiis, 1537,— Arlis SphygmicjE, jam miUe
ducentos annos perdita; et desideratie, Hbri V. a Jos.
Struthio, Venetiis, 1573. This work has passed through
three editions. He edited also the writings of Hippo-
crates, De Fracturis and De Articulis.

Note 7.

Among the authors who gave accounts of the Univer-
sity of Cracow, are Pistorius in his Corpus Historico-
rum Poloniae, Vol. III. Basilcae, 1582.— Aeneas Sil-
vius Piccolomineus, afterwards Pope, under the name of
Pius II. in his Relatio de Polonia. — Harlmanus Schcdel
in his Commentarius de Sarmatia. — Ludovicus Deciue
in his Vetustates Polonorum. — Jacobus Middendorp in
his Treatise " De Academiis Orbis Universi, a. 1 594." —
Leonard Cox, an Englishman, " Dc Laudibus Acadc-

APPENDIX.

375

mific Ctac, ISIS," whu, at the proposal of Erasmus of
Kolterdam, accepted a chair of rhetoric in Cracow.—
Among the Polish authors, Wiechovita, DJugossus, Cro-
merus, Orzechowski, in their Chronicles _piMaim. But the
principal works concerning it are, Radiminslu's '* Fasti
Studii Generalis Acad. Crac. an. 1658," in seven vo-
lumes, and his " Annates AlniEe Acad. Crac." in MS ; —
and Soltykowicz's " State of the Umversity of Cracow,'
in I8I0.

No»K 8.

Radiminski, giving biographical notices of the cele-
brated natives who were pupils of the University of Cra-
cow, passes over the foreigners who had there received
their education in these words •■ " Nam omnium gentium
illustres virtuti et scripsit viros, Italos, Danos, Germa-
nos, Daimatas, Boenios, Sileaos, Pannonas, qui ex hac
Acadcmia nostra prodierunt referre, nee virium est nee
ingenii nostri." In this enumeration the Swedes are
omitted ; let us at least advert to them. They had in Cra-
cow their separate bursary for several students ; and the
moat eminent Swedes educated there were, Oiaus Lauren-
tii, called also de Upsalia, graduated Doctor Theol. at
Cracow in 1416, and subsequently Archbishop of Upsal ;
Olaus and John Magnus, about the year 1500; the
first studied philosophy and theology, the other mathe-
matics ; both graduated Doctorea Theol. and after-
wards, one after the other. Archbishops of Upsal. They
are celebrated as historians of Sweden ; and both
died in exile, on account of their attachment to

876 APPENDIX.

the Romish Chufch diiring the time of the Reforma-
tioiL

Note 9-

. Mathias of Cracow ^ved itt the close of the 14th
c^ti^ry, was professor at three uniy^ersities, those of Crar
cow« Pr^ue, and Paris; Anally a Theologian to the
^inperor Rupe^, and, in the year 1402, his Ambasscidpr
to the Khan Tamerlane. His writings are theological ^
soime were directed against the heresies of Wickliff.
** Theologia,'^ arranged in a scholastic manner, " Usus
Eucharistise,^ and '^ArsMoriendi,^'arehisprincipal works.
This last was thought so important, that, in order to
fMromulgate it the sooner, it was^ in 1440, printed with
xylotype^ at Harlem, and hence belongs w the incunabula
of the art o^ printing*

' * • . •

Notfi lb..

Albert Bjiudzewski was born in 1445, educated at
Cracow, and at la^t Professor at the University of that
place. He was the pupil of Michael of Wrpclaw in the
physical sciences, and of John of Glpgow in mathematics,
: — fellow-Student of Eckiys and Rudolph Agricola, both
foreigners, a^d &jnous poets, crowned in Rome. At alater
period, Brudzewski was secretary to Alexander, a prince
of royal blood ; and in this quality he died in 1497.
His_works are, Introductorium Astronomorum Craco-
yiensium ; — ■ Tabulae resolutap Astronomicae pro sup-
putandis motibus corporum coelestium ; — De Construc-
tione Astrolabii. Since his time the mathematics have
continued to flourish in Poland. His pupils were so

APPENDIX.

art

many, that he might be considered as the founder of a
tchool of mathematicians. Copernicus stands at their
head- Among the otliers are James- of Kobylin,
the author of " Declaratio Astrolabii ;"— Bernard Wa-
powski, a famous historian, and a particular friend of
Copernicus ; — Nicolas Szadek, Commentator on Aris-
totle's Ethics, and author of different theolo^cal works ;
— Martin of Olkiisz, author of " Iijova Calendarii
Romani Reformatio, 1516," an undertaking which he
had been entrusted with by Leo X. After a strict
examination his reform was found well adapted to
the purpose ; but, unfortunately for his fame, the death
of this Pontiff prevented the adoption of it. The Rej-
form of the Calendar, reahzed axty-four years after h&
death, under Gregory XIII. is not in any thing different
from his computations. Mr Soltykowicz having made
a comparison of the two, has pointed out their close mu-
tual coincidence. — Grzebski, the first translator of Eu-
clid's Elements into Polish, belongs to the same school,
though he was not his immediate pupil. The same may
be siud of BrosciuH, who was bom in the year 1581, and
concludes the series of the celebrated mathematicians of
this ancient seniinary. After him mathematics were ne-
glected until the reign of Stanislaus Poniatowski. Broscdus
was author of the following writings : Geodesia Distan-
tiarum sine Instrumento ; — Polybii locus obscuiior
Geomctrice explicatus, Crac. 1610;— Diasertatio de
Cometa Astrophili, Crac. 1619 ; — Qutestio de Dieniro
Inequalitate, Crac. 1619 ; — Ariihmctica Integrormn ; —
Apologia pro Aristotele et Euclide contra Pctrum Ka-
mum et alios, Dantisci, 1652; — De Numeris Perfectis.

378

APPENDIX.

Note 11.

^H Thx Lectures on Rhetoric in the University of Cra-

^H cow were founded on H umanity and Dialectics ; and the

^f lecturers were also colled Professors of Philosophy.

H The moat eminent are the following :

^ft James Goksbi, horn in 1 5S5, Doctor utriusqae juris.

^H His principal writings are these : De Periodis atque Nu-

^H meris, lihri duo, Crac. 1058 ;^De Generibus dicendi

^^^ Liber, Crac. 1559 ;— De Figuris turn Gronunaticis tum

^^1 Bhetoricis, Libri V. Crac. 1560; — Commentariorum

^H ArUs Dialectics, Libri X. Crac. 1563 ; — Orationes Gra-

^B tulatorise, Crac. 158!^.

^H Benedict Hebbkkst, an opponent of Gorski, de-

^H livered Lectures on the Orationes and Epistolie of Cicero,

^H and published several of them with his remarks. His

^H original works are, Vita Ciccronis, — Disputatio de Pe-

^f riodis et Ratione scribendse Orationis,— De Katione in-

Btituendic Juventutisj—Tabulse in Prosodlam,— Arith>
mctica Linearis.

SiuoN Mabycki translated inlo Latin, and edited
"Demon8thenisdePaceOratio,'"in 1546; arid"Deraos-
thenis pro Libertate Rhodiorum," in 1547, Crac. —
published also Cicero's " Oratio pro Publ. Quintio,'' in
16i7, — and " Dialog! tres de Oratore," in 1548, Crac,
both accompaoicd with explanatory notes. He wrote
besides " De Scholis seu Acadeniiis," Libri IL Crac.
1551.

Adam Romkr, Doctor Philos. is author of the fol-
lowing works un the subject of eloquence: De Rntione
rt'Cle clegantcrqiie scribendi nc loquendi, Libri III

Crac. 1690,— De infcmnando Oratore, libri III.^-UA.iia-
lysis and illustrations often Speeches of Cicero.

BuESKi, Doctor Philos. Prof, of Eloquence in the Aca-
demy of Zamosc, in 1600. His piinoipal work, which
was much admired at that time, is ^< Dialeetica Ciceronis
quae disperse in Soriptis' reli^uit, cvaik Conmoefltariis.
Samosci, 160i.^

Lepiscki closes the series of tlie eminent scholastic
teachers of eloquence. His published works were twenty
in number^ which I shall not enumerate. In all of them
may be seen a great deal of erudition, and mtich display
of talent ; but likewise evident traces of a corrupted taste
which began to insinuate itself into learning, and of which,
the Poles were unable to free themselves, until the pe-
riod of the national reform of educatkaK

Note 12.

Description of ArctH/Sia cmA Puktwy, hy HJBM DeUtte*
See " Les JardinSy^ Chant /,

Sous un del mbihs heureux, 1e SarioQA^te, ^ son tour^
Presenter auk yeux riiVis, plus dSiii ri^t s^our.
Tel brille ce siiperbe et ridie pay6ag6
Qui fut de Radzivil ring^iieux ouvtfige :
L^^ tout pldt k nos jjsux., le doteau^ te vaHoh,
Et la belle Arcadie a m^rtt^ ison nom.

£t pourrois-je oublier ta pompe enqhantere88e«
Toi^ dans qui Tel^ance est Jpinte k la richetee^
Fortune Ptdhavi, qui seul obtins des dieux
Les cbarmes que le cielparlage k d'autres lieux ?
Quel tableau ravissant pr^sekitent tes campagbes!
De quel cadre pompeux Tentourent ces Inontagnes^
Ou du grand Casiinir^ seul^ aana garde et sans cpur,
Le palais regne eiicor suir les champs d'alentoor !

880

APPENDIX^

Detours myeterleux, mognifiquM allees,

Boia chamiatis, verds cuteaux, agreeables vuT^.-a,

LcB aspects elrangera, et tes proprcs tresors.

Tout enchante au dedans, tout invite au dehors.

Dirai-je les for^tadont lea montea (e couronncnc,

Ol!l ce ch£ne, g^ant dea boia qui reQTiroiiitenl,

O^ ce beau peuplier de qui I'enonne troDc,

lioraque dc cent hirers il a brave I'alfrotit,

Se festonnont dc niruds, il'ou sort un verd feuilluge,

Semble orn^ par le wins, el rajeuni par I'age ?

Poor miens cbarmer les yeux, au pied de tes coleanx.
La Vistule, pour toi, roule eea vastea eaux ;
Four toi Bon aein blanchit eoub dea barqaea agiles,
Ellc baigne tes boix, c]lc enibroase tea ilea.
Quel plaisir, quand le Boir jette ses dernierB feiix,
De voir, peinta a la foia dans aea flota milieus
Qu'un beau pourpre colore, et qu'un blanc pur argente,
Le aoleil espirant et la lane naissante !
L4, d'un chemin public, c'est Taspecl anime,
Du plus loin qu'il te volt le Toyageur charme
S'airete, admire, et part, emporlant ton image;
Le fleuve, le ruisseau, la foret, le bocage,
Les area lointaina dcs ponts, la fitche dea clocbers
Mc fi-appent tour ii tour ; tes grottcs, tes rochera
Sout de vaslea palais voutes par la nature ;
D'autres, enfkns de I'art, ont cbocun leure parure.
La, les fleurs, Toranger, les myrtes toi^oura verds
Jouissent du printems, et trompent les hivera;
D'nn portique pompcux leur abri se decore,
Et leur pariiini tiabit la retraite de Flore.

Ailleurs, c'est un musee, asile Btudieux.
Livret, bronzes, tableaux, li, tout charme lea yeux ;
La, meme aprea Merope, Atbalie et Zaire,
Mes fbihles Tera, peu^etre, obtiennent un sourire.

RomCj Athene, en ces lieus, quel art vons imita P
Je reconnois de loin le temple de Vesta.
Voicila rocheaugusteou tonnoit la Sybils ;
Sa main n'y trace plus sur la fcuillc mobile

APPENDIX. 381

Ces arret« ftigiti&y tableaux de Tavenir ;

Id, c'est le posse qui parle au souvenir.

Ses noinbrenx numumens enxichissent I'liistcnre,

£t ce temple est pour nous le temple de memoire ;

J'y trouve le bon roi, Tusurpateur crue!,

£t les traits de Henri pres de ceux de Cromwell,

La chalne de Stuart, ce livre d' Antoinette,

Par qui montdt vers Dieu sa pri^ secrete.

Ab ! couple unfortune, siget de tant de pleura,

Vos noms seuls prononc^ attendrissent les coeurs.

Au sortir de ce temple ou revivent les ages,
Un autre va des lieux me montrer les images ;
Imagination, pouvoir que j'ai diant^,
Conduis-moi, porte-moi dans oe temple encbant^
0\i des mura Byzantins, d'un temple ou le Druide
Souilloit de sang bumain son autel bomidde,
D'un palais de TEcosse, et d'un fort de Paris,
S'assemblent les fragmens, I'un de I'autre surpris.
Rome^ Rome elle-meme, en ravages f^conde,
Mele id sa mine aux mines du monde ;
Un roc du Capitole y venge Y univers ;
Mais un temple est forme de ces debris diverjs ;
n point le monde entier, il orne le bocage ;
£t le tems destructeur meconnoit son ouvrage.

Au fond de ce bosquet, vers ce lieu retire,
J'avance et je d^uvre un d^ri plus sacre ;
Venez id, vous tous, dont Tame recudllie
Vit des tristes plaisirs de la m^ncolie.
Voyez ce mausolee ou le bouleau pliant,
Lugubre imitateur du saule d'Orient,
Avec ses longs rameaux, et sa feuille qui tombe,
Triste, et les bras pendans, vient pleurer hur la tombe.

Et toi dont le g^nie oma ce leu cbarmant.
Que ce lieu, pour toi-meme, est un doux monument !
II te vit, fille heureuse, adorer un bon pere,
Te vit beureuse epouse, et bienbeureuse mere.
Ta fille, k ces beautds, prSte un diarme nouveau;
Elk embellit les ftetxn, le bosquet, le ruisseauj

888 AJBBEasnjUL.

Te rend plus chers In. I»l8 ji^Mb. de i»i aiic6tret»
L&^ vos plus doux fltiflui aont dfltpkisiBi.aiiBinptoes ;
Isk, commiiiisuMnt ¥qb vcnuc^.Totne bonheor- caiiuniiu»
Vos paraioiitf^Mii^ efc^vea CGBora ne:a9nt-qiifiiii«

Et moi^ peintre des champi^ nudqui' ferai, peatftee
Vlvre ces.betiuE jardina que vw maint-ont fidt mitre^
Mon nom da mcuin^ raon.nom htbite done oes/lieiiK !
La pierre qui llionaie est done dkhxekfos ymiK !
Des groupea de bergen et dee dueunde bergkee
Viennentdone quelqiiefbi% de leuxt. damns l^g^bWy
Animer la prairie a^ gjtt modestemcnt^
An berd d'on^dair nuBsean, mon humble monument ! <
Ah ! que ne pent ma Toix Vy 4dre unjoor entendre I
Mes chants- ▼onarendnnentgrloey et ponr.une &me tendre.
Quels 8on»>hannonieux. quela aooorda zmvissam^
De la reconnoiBsance^lent lea aooso*?
Entendez done sa yoix ; etque 8on;donz langage
Pour moi seiti^un plaisir^ et pour Toaaim homnuge.

THE END.

Printed by George Ramsay & Co.
Edinburgh, 1823.

SPECIMENS OF MUSIC.

(See page 54 and 333.)

' 291ST2 005 "l bi^3

115 ,L3 C.1

MpHn

3 6105 038 895 020

CECIL H.GREEN LIBRARY

STANFORD UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES

STANFORD, CALIFORNIA 94305-6063

(650) 723-M93

grncirc@sianford.edu

All books are subject to r
DATE DUE

;all.

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Texts

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "Letters, Literary and Political, on Poland: Comprising Observations on Russia and Other ..."

See other formats